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Genetic and Environmental Overlap between Low Self-Control and Delinquency

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Abstract

Low self-control has emerged as a consistent and strong predictor of antisocial and delinquent behaviors. Using the twin subsample of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), genetic analyses were conducted to examine the genetic and environmental contributions to low self-control and offending as well as to their relationship with one another. The results revealed that low self-control and criminal behaviors are influenced by genetic and nonshared environmental factors with the effects of shared environmental factors being negligible. In addition, the co-variation between low self-control and criminal behaviors appears to be largely due to common genetic and nonshared environmental factors operating on both phenotypes. The implications of these findings on the current understanding of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime are discussed.

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Notes

  1. There was an approximately even distribution of males (48%) and females (47%), with 6% of the cases missing information on gender. Also, approximately 60% of the sample was White, 23% was Black, 10% was classified as other, and 6% was unknown.

  2. The model is deemed a good fit to the data if the Comparative Fix Index (CFI) is ≥0.95, the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) is ≥0.95, and the Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA) is ≤0.06.

  3. The mean adjusted weighted least squares estimator is appropriate for categorical indicators, such as those included in the measures of self-control in this study.

  4. A covariance was added between the error terms for the measures of “getting into trouble with teachers” and “getting into trouble with other students” at wave I.

  5. A covariance was added between the error terms for the measures of “getting into trouble with teachers” and “getting into trouble with other students” at wave II.

  6. This is accomplished by estimating a series of models where the factor loadings and thresholds are fixed or freed, and then the models are compared with the Santorra Bentler difference of Chi-square test.

  7. More specifically, the presence of weak factorial invariance suggests that the interpretation of the items does not vary over time, and that the factors are in the same metric over time (i.e., a one unit change in the factor score corresponds the same amount of change in the observed variable over time). The presence of invariance in the thresholds suggests that the response choices are interpreted the same across time.

  8. A covariance was added between the error terms for the measures of “look for exciting things to do” and “try new things just for fun or thrills” at wave III.

  9. Many studies have found self-control to be moderately to highly stable (Arneklev et al. 1998; Hay and Forrest 2006). The low between wave correlations reported here could be the result of several different factors, including but not limited to, (1) unique sampling variance specific to the Add Health, (2) the time elapsed between waves—the time between wave I and wave III is 7 years, (3) items included in the measures at waves I and II were not the same as those included at wave III, and/or (4) compounded measurement error across waves, as error over time reduces stability estimates.

  10. With a few exceptions.

  11. We also conducted our analyses using an expanded measure of self-control developed by Beaver et al. (2009a, b). The results from those additional analyses virtually mirrored those presented here and are available upon request. Specifically, across the three waves, genetic factors accounted for 40–45, 38–56, 35–51, 30–56% of the variance in self-control, overall delinquency, nonviolent delinquency, and violent delinquency, respectively. Furthermore, the estimates showed that, across the three waves, common genetic factors accounted for 45–80, 46–79, and 26–75% of the covariance between low self-control and overall delinquency, between low self-control and nonviolent delinquency, and between low self-control and violent delinquency, respectively.

  12. Our results differ slightly from the meta-analyses by Rhee and Waldman (2002) and Burt (2009) who reported that shared environmental influences account for 16 and 18% of the variance in antisocial behaviors and nonaggressive forms of antisocial behaviors, respectively.

  13. MAOA is an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and epinephrine.

  14. However, it is possible that the effects of shared environment were underestimated due to the lack of inclusion of other siblings of varying degrees of genetic relatedness. Using an extended-twin design could potentially increase the statistical power to detect shared environmental influences (Posthuma and Boomsma 2000). Also, our results differ slightly from the meta-analysis by Rhee and Waldman (2002) which revealed that 41, 16, and 43% of the variance in antisocial behaviors is attributed to genetic, shared, and nonshared environmental factors, respectively.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Affairs, Department of Criminal Justice, Penn State Harrisburg, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA

    Danielle Boisvert

  2. Division of Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 45221, USA

    John Paul Wright

  3. Division of Behavioral Genetics, Department of Psychiatry, Rhode Island Hospital Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University, Providence, RI, 02912, USA

    Valerie Knopik

  4. Criminology and Criminal Justice Department, Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC, 28723, USA

    Jamie Vaske

Authors
  1. Danielle Boisvert
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  2. John Paul Wright
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  3. Valerie Knopik
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  4. Jamie Vaske
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Danielle Boisvert.

Appendix

Appendix

Low Self-Control at Wave I

  1. 1.

    How often do you have trouble getting along with your teachersa

  2. 2.

    How often do you have trouble paying attention in schoola

  3. 3.

    How often do you have trouble getting your homework done a

  4. 4.

    How often do you have trouble getting along with other studentsa

  5. 5.

    How often did you have trouble keeping your mind on what you were doing, during the past seven daysb

Response Categories: a0 = never, 1 = just a few times, 2 = about once a week, 3 = almost everyday, 4 = everyday. b0 = never or rarely, 1 = sometimes, 2 = a lot of the time, 3 = most of the time or all of the time. (α = 0.71)

Low Self-Control at Wave II

  1. 1.

    How often do you have trouble getting along with your teachersa

  2. 2.

    How often do you have trouble paying attention in schoola

  3. 3.

    How often do you have trouble getting your homework donea

  4. 4.

    How often do you have trouble getting along with other studentsa

  5. 5.

    How often did you have trouble keeping your mind on what you were doing, during the past seven daysb

Response Categories: a0 = never, 1 = just a few times, 2 = about once a week, 3 = almost everyday, 4 = everyday. b0 = never or rarely, 1 = sometimes, 2 = a lot of the time, 3 = most of the time or all of the time. (α = 0.67)

Low Self-Control at Wave III

  1. 1.

    I often try new things just for fun or thrills, even if most people think they are a waste of time

  2. 2.

    When nothing new is happening, I usually start looking for something exciting

  3. 3.

    I often do things based on how I feel at the moment

  4. 4.

    I sometimes get so excited that I lose control of myself

  5. 5.

    I like it when people can do whatever they want, without strict rules and regulations

  6. 6.

    I often follow my instincts, without thinking through all the details

  7. 7.

    I change my interest a lot, because my attention often shifts to something else

Response Categories: 0 = not true, 1 = a little true, 2 = somewhat true, 3 = pretty true, 4 = very true. (α = 0.84)

Overall Delinquency at Wave I and II

In the past 12 months, how often did you:

  1. 1.

    Get into a serious physical fighta

  2. 2.

    Hurt someone badly enough to need bandages or care from a doctor or nursea

  3. 3.

    Use or threaten to use a weapon to get something from someonea

  4. 4.

    Take part in a fight where a group of your friends were against another groupa

  5. 5.

    Pull a knife or a gun on someoneb

  6. 6.

    You shot or stabbed someoneb

  7. 7.

    Paint graffiti or signs on someone else’s property or in a public placea

  8. 8.

    Deliberately damage property that didn’t belong to youa

  9. 9.

    Take something from a store without paying for ita

  10. 10.

    Drive a car without its owner’s permissiona

  11. 11.

    Steal something worth more than $50a

  12. 12.

    Go into a house or building to steal somethinga

  13. 13.

    Sell marijuana or other drugsa

  14. 14.

    Steal something worth less than $50a

Response Categories: a0 = never, 1 = one or two times, 2 = three or four times, 3 = five or more times. b0 = never, 1 = once, 2 = more than once. (wave I α = 0.84; wave II α = 0.81)

Overall Offending at Wave III

  1. 1.

    Use a weapon in a fighta

  2. 2.

    Hurt someone badly enough to need bandages or care from a doctor or nursea

  3. 3.

    Use or threaten to use a weapon to get something from someonea

  4. 4.

    Take part in a fight where a group of your friends were against another groupa

  5. 5.

    Pull a knife or a gun on someoneb

  6. 6.

    You shot or stabbed someoneb

  7. 7.

    Deliberately damage property that didn’t belong to youa

  8. 8.

    Steal something worth more than $50a

  9. 9.

    Go into a house or building to steal somethinga

  10. 10.

    Sell marijuana or other drugsa

  11. 11.

    Steal something worth less than $50a

  12. 12.

    Buy, sell, or hold stolen propertya

  13. 13.

    Use someone else’s credit or bank card without their permission or knowledgea

  14. 14.

    Deliberately write a bad checka

Response Categories: a0 = never, 1 = one or two times, 2 = three or four times, 3 = five or more times. b0 = no, 1 = yes. (α = 0.73)

Violent Delinquency at Waves I and II

In the past 12 months, how often did you:

  1. 1.

    Get into a serious physical fighta

  2. 2.

    Hurt someone badly enough to need bandages or care from a doctor or nursea

  3. 3.

    Use or threaten to use a weapon to get something from someonea

  4. 4.

    Take part in a fight where a group of your friends were against another groupa

  5. 5.

    Pull a knife or a gun on someoneb

  6. 6.

    You shot or stabbed someoneb

Response Categories: a0 = never, 1 = one or two times, 2 = three or four times, 3 = five or more times. b0 = never, 1 = once, 2 = more than once. (wave I α = 0.75; wave II α = 0.72)

Violent Offending at Wave III

In the past 12 months, how often did you:

  1. 1.

    Use a weapon in a fighta

  2. 2.

    Hurt someone badly enough to need bandages or care from a doctor or nursea

  3. 3.

    Use or threaten to use a weapon to get something from someonea

  4. 4.

    Take part in a fight where a group of your friends were against another groupa

  5. 5.

    Pull a knife or a gun on someoneb

  6. 6.

    You shot or stabbed someoneb

Response Categories: a0 = never, 1 = one or two times, 2 = three or four times, 3 = five or more times. b0 = no, 1 = yes. (α = 0.52)

Non-Violent Delinquency at Waves I and II

In the past 12 months, how often did you:

  1. 1.

    Paint graffiti or signs on someone else’s property or in a public place

  2. 2.

    Deliberately damage property that didn’t belong to you

  3. 3.

    Take something from a store without paying for it

  4. 4.

    Drive a car without its owner’s permission

  5. 5.

    Steal something worth more than $50

  6. 6.

    Go into a house or building to steal something

  7. 7.

    Sell marijuana or other drugs

  8. 8.

    Steal something worth less than $50

Response Categories: 0 = never, 1 = one or two times, 2 = three or four times, 3 = five or more times. (wave I α = 0.78; wave II = 0.77)

Non-Violent Offending at Wave III

In the past 12 months, how often did you:

  1. 1.

    Deliberately damage property that didn’t belong to you

  2. 2.

    Steal something worth more than $50

  3. 3.

    Go into a house or building to steal something

  4. 4.

    Sell marijuana or other drugs

  5. 5.

    Steal something worth less than $50

  6. 6.

    Buy, sell, or hold stolen property

  7. 7.

    Use someone else’s credit or bank card without their permission or knowledge

  8. 8.

    Deliberately write a bad check

Response Categories: 0 = never, 1 = one or two times, 2 = three or four times, 3 = five or more times. (α = 0.66)

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Boisvert, D., Wright, J.P., Knopik, V. et al. Genetic and Environmental Overlap between Low Self-Control and Delinquency. J Quant Criminol 28, 477–507 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-011-9150-x

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