Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Growth in Phonological, Orthographic, and Morphological Awareness in Grades 1 to 6

  • Published:
Journal of Psycholinguistic Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Growth curve analyses showed that (a) word-level phonological and orthographic awareness show greatest growth during the primary grades but some additional growth thereafter, and (b) three kinds of morphological awareness show greatest growth in the first three or four grades but one—derivation—continues to show substantial growth after fourth grade. Implications of the findings for the role of three kinds of linguistic awareness—phonological, orthographic, and morphological—in learning to read and spell words are discussed. A case is made that phonological awareness, while necessary, is not sufficient for learning to read English—all three kinds of linguistic awareness that are growing during the primary grades need to be coordinated and applied to literacy learning. This finding and a review of the research on linguistic awareness support the conclusion that the recommendations of the National Reading Panel need to be amended so that the research evidence supporting the importance of both orthographic and morphological awareness, and not only phonological awareness, is acknowledged. Moreover, evidence-based strategies for teaching each of these kinds of linguistic awareness and their interrelationships need to be disseminated to educational practitioners.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams M. J. (1990) Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. MIT Press, Cambridge, MD

    Google Scholar 

  • Anglin J. (1993) Vocabulary development: A morphological analysis. Monographs for the Society for Research in Child Development 58: 1–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Apel K., Masterson J. (2001) Theory-guided spelling assessment and intervention: A case study. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 32: 182–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Apel K., Wolter J., Masterson J. (2006) Effects of phonotactic and orthotactic probabilities during fast mapping on 5-year-olds’ learning to spell. Developmental Neuropsychology 29: 21–42

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnback E., Elbro C. (2000) The effects of morphological awareness training on the reading and spelling skills of young dyslexics. Scandanavian Journal of Educational Research 44: 229–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahr R. H., Silliman E. R., Berninger V. (2009) What spelling errors have to tell about vocabulary learning. In: Wood C., Connelly V. (eds) Reading and spelling: Contemporary perspectives. Routledge EARLi Writing Series, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Barker T. A., Torgesen J. K., Wagner R. K. (1992) The role of orthographic processing skills on five different reading tasks. Reading Research Quarterly 27: 335–345

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentler P. M. (2001) EQS structural equation modeling program manual. Multivariate Software, Encino, CA

    Google Scholar 

  • Berko J. (1958) The child’s learning of English morphology. Word 14: 150–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V. (1987) Global, component, and serial processing of printed words in beginning readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 43: 387–418

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V. (2001) Process assessment of the learner (PAL) test battery for reading and writing. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Traweek D. (1991) Effects of two-phase reading intervention on three orthographic-phonological code connections. Learning and Individual Differences 3: 323–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Abbott R., Brooksher R., Lemos Z., Ogier S., Zook D. et al (2000) A connectionist approach to making the predictability of English orthography explicit to at-risk beginning readers: Evidence for alternative, effective strategies. Developmental Neuropsychology 17: 241–271

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Abbott R., Whitaker D., Sylvester L., Nolen S. (1995) Integrating low-level skills and high-level skills in treatment protocols for writing disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly 18: 293–309

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Cartwright A., Yates C., Swanson H., Abbott B. (1994) Developmental skills related to writing and reading acquisition in the intermediate grades. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 6: 161–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Garcia N., Abbott R. (2009) Multiple processes that matter in writing instruction and assessment. In: Troia G. A. (eds) Instruction and assessment for struggling writers: Evidence based practices. Guilford, New York, pp 15–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Nagy W., Carlisle J., Thomson J., Hoffer D., Abbott S. et al (2003) Effective treatment for dyslexics in grades 4–6: Behavioral and brain evidence. In: Foorman B. (eds) Preventing and remediating reading difficulties: Bringing science to scale. York Press, Timonium, MD, pp 275–308

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Nagy W., Richards T., Raskind W. (2008a) Developmental dyslexia: A developmental neurolinguistic approach. In: Rickheit G., Strohner H. (eds) Handbook of communicative competence. Handbook of applied linguistics. Mouton de Gruyter, Germany, pp 397–440

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Raskind W., Richards T., Abbott R., Stock P. (2008b) A multidisciplinary approach to understanding developmental dyslexia within working-memory architecture: Genotypes, phenotypes, brain, and instruction. Developmental Neuropsychology 33: 707–744

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Winn W., Stock P., Abbott R., Eschen K., Lin C. et al (2008) Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with dyslexia. Reading and Writing. An Interdisciplinary Journal 21: 95–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Yates C., Cartwright A., Rutberg J., Remy E., Abbott R. (1992) Lower-level developmental skills in beginning writing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 4: 257–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger V., Yates C., Lester K. (1991) Multiple orthographic codes in reading and writing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 3: 115–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourassa D., Treiman R., Kessler B. (2006) Use of morphology in spelling by children with dyslexia and typically developing children. Memory & Cognition 34: 703–714

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley L., Bryant P. (1983) Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature 303: 419–421

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruce D. J. (1964) The analysis of word sounds. British Journal of Educational Psychology 34: 158–170

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant P., Nunes T., Bindman M. (1997) Children’s understanding of the connection between grammar and spelling. In: Blachman B. (eds) Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp 219–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle J (1994) Morphological awareness, spelling, and story writing. Possible relationships for elementary-age children with and without learning disabilities. In: Jordan N. C., Goldsmith-Phillips J. (eds) Learning disabilities. New directions for assessment and intervention. Allyn Bacon, Boston, pp 123–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle J. (1995) Morphological awareness and early reading achievement. In: Feldman L. B. (eds) Morphological aspects of language processing. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 189–209

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle J. (2000) Awareness of the structure and meaning of morphologically complex words: Impact on reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 12: 169–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle J., Nomanbhoy D. (1993) Phonological and morphological awareness in first graders. Applied Psycholinguistics 14: 177–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle J., Rice M. (2002) Improving reading comprehension. Research-based principles and practices. York Press, Inc., Baltimore, MD

    Google Scholar 

  • Casalis S., Louis-Alexandre M.-F. (2000) Morphological analysis, phonological analysis and learning to read French: A longitudinal study. Reading and Writing. An Interdisciplinary Journal 12: 303–335

    Google Scholar 

  • Derwing B. L. (1976) Morpheme recognition and the learning of rules for derivational morphology. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 21: 38–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Derwing B. L., Smith M. L., Wiebe G. E. (1995) On the role of spelling in morpheme recognition: Experimental studies with children and adults. In: Feldman L. (eds) Morphological aspects of language processing. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 3–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon R. C., Engelmann S. (2001) Spelling through morphographs: Teacher’s guide. SRA/McGraw-Hill, Columbus, OH

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehri L. (1978) Beginning reading from a psycholinguistic perspective: Amalgamation of word identities. In: Murray F. B. (eds) The development of the reading process. International reading association monograph (No. 3). International Reading Association, Newark, pp 1–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehri L. (1980) The development of orthographic images. In: Frith U. (eds) Cognitive processes in spelling. Academic Press, London, pp 311–338

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehri L. C. (1992) Reconceptualizing the development of sight word reading and its relation to recoding. In: Gough P. B., Ehri L. C., Treiman R. (eds) Reading acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 107–143

    Google Scholar 

  • Fayol M., Thévenin M.-G., Jarousse J.-P., Totereau C. (1995) From learning to teaching to learning French written morphology. In: Nunes T. (eds) Learning to read: An integrated view from research and practice. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherland, pp 43–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Foulin J., Chanquoy L. (2006) Online study of word spelling production in children. In: Waes L., Leijten M., Neuwirth C. (eds) Writing and digital media. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 145–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Fowler A., Liberman I. (1995) The role of phonology and orthography in morphological awareness. In: Feldman L. (eds) Morphological aspects of language processing. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 157–188

    Google Scholar 

  • Green L., McCutchen D., Schweibert C., Quinlan T., Eva-Wood A., Juelis J. (2003) Morphological development in children’s writing. Journal of Educational Psychology 95: 752–761

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry M. (1989) Children’s word structure knowledge: Implications for decoding and spelling instruction. Reading and Writing. An Interdisciplinary Journal 1: 135–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry M. (2003) Unlocking literacy. Effective decoding and spelling instruction. Paul H. Brookes Publishing, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffré J., Fayol M. (2006) Orthography and literacy in French. In: Joshi R. M., Aaron P. G. (eds) Handbook of orthography and literacy. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp 3–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson N. (1978) Coding processes in memory. In: Estes W. K. (eds) Handbook of learning and cognitive processes. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 87–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson N. (1986) On looking at letters within words: Do we “see” them in memory? Journal of Memory and Language 25: 558–570

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler B., Treiman R. (1997) Syllable structure and the distribution of phonemes in English syllables. Journal of Memory and Language 37: 295–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Ku Y., Anderson R. C. (2003) Development of morphological awareness in Chinese and English. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 16: 399–422

    Google Scholar 

  • Largy P., Cousin M., Bryant P., Fayol M. (2007) When memorized instances compete with rules: The case of number-noun agreement in written French. Journal of Child Language 34: 425–437

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liberman L., Shankweiler D., Fischer F., Carter B. (1974) Explicit syllable and phoneme segmentation in the young child. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 18: 201–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Liberman I., Shankweiler D., Liberman A., Fowler C., Fischer F. (1977) Phonetic segmentation and recoding in the beginning reader. In: Reber A., Scarborough D. (eds) Toward a psychology of reading. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 207–225

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahony D., Singson M., Mann V. (2000) Reading ability and sensitivity to morphological relations. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 12: 191–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Manis F., Szeszulski P., Holt L., Graves K. (1990) Variation in component word recognition and spelling skills among dyslexic children and normal readers. In: Carr T. H., Levy B. A. (eds) Reading and its development: Component skills approaches. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 207–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinet C., Valdois S., Fayol M. (2004) Lexical orthographic knowledge develops from the beginning of reading acquisition. Cognition 91: B11–B22

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattingly I. (1972) Reading, the linguistic process, and linguistic awareness. In: Kavanagh J., Mattingly I. (eds) Language by ear and by eye: The relationship between speech and reading. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 133–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy W. (2007) Metalinguistic awareness and the vocabulary-comprehension connection. In: Wagner R. K., Muse A., Tannenbaum K. (eds) Vocabulary acquisition and its implications for reading comprehension. Guilford, New York, pp 52–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy W.E., Anderson R. (1984) How many words in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly 19: 304–330

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy W. E., Anderson R. C., Schommer M., Scott J., Stallman A. (1989) Morphological families and word recognition. Reading Research Quarterly 24: 262–282

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy W., Berninger V., Abbott R. (2006) Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle school students. Journal of Educational Psychology 98: 134–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy W., Berninger V., Abbott R., Vaughan K., Vermeulen K. (2003) Relationship of morphology and other language skills to literacy skills in at-risk second graders and at-risk fourth grade writers. Journal of Educational Psychology 95: 730–742

    Google Scholar 

  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). (2000). Report of the national reading panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups (NIH Publication No. 00–4754). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing.

  • Nunes T., Bryant P. (1995) The effect of morphological training on word reading and spelling. In: Nunes T. (eds) Learning to read: An integrated view from research and practice. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 43–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunes T., Bryant P. (2006) Improving literacy by teaching morphemes (improving learning series). Routledge, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunes T., Bryant P., Bindman M. (1997) Morphological spelling strategies: Developmental stages and processes. Developmental Psychology 33(4): 637–649

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nunes T., Bryant P., Bindman M. (2006) The effects of learning to spell on children’s awareness of morphology. Reading and Writing 19: 767–787

    Google Scholar 

  • Nunes T., Bryant P., Olsson J. (2003) Learning morphological and phonological spelling rules: An intervention study. Scientific Studies of Reading 7: 289–307

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson R., Datta H., Gayan J., DeFries J. (1999) A behavioral-genetic analysis of reading disabilities and component processes. In: Klein R., McMullen P. (eds) Converging methods for understanding reading and dyslexia. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp 133–151

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson R., Forsberg H., Wise B. (1994) Genes, environment, and the development of orthographic skills. In: Berninger V. W. (eds) The varieties of orthographic knowledge I: Theoretical and developmental issues. Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, pp 27–71

    Google Scholar 

  • Olson R., Forsberg H., Wise B., Rack J. (1994) Measurement of word recognition, orthographic, and phonological skills. In: Lyon G. R. (eds) Frames of reference for the assessment of learning disabilities. Brooks, Baltimore, pp 243–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacton, S. & Deacon, S. H. (2009). The timing and mechanisms of children’s use of morphological information in spelling: Evidence from English and French. Cognitive Development.

  • Pacton S., Fayol M. (2004) Learning to spell in a deep orthography, The case of French. In: Berman R. A. (eds) Language development across childhood and adolescence. John Benjamin Pub. Company, Amsterdam

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacton S., Fayol M., Perruchet P. (2005) Children’s implicit learning of graphotactic and morphological regularities. Child Development 76: 324–339

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pacton S., Perruchet P., Fayol M., Cleeremans A. (2001) Implicit learning out of the lab: The case of orthographic regularities. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130: 401–426

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti C. (1992) The representation problem in reading acquisition. In: Gough P. B., Ehri L. C., Treiman R. (eds) Reading acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ, pp 145–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Plaza M., Cohen H. (2004) Predictive influence of phonological processing, morphological/syntactic skill, and naming speed on spelling performance. Brain and Cognition 55: 368–373

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.) Sage.

  • Raudenbush S. W., Chan W (1993) Application of hierarchical linear model to the study of adolescent deviance in an overlapping cohort design. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology 61: 941–951

    Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush S. W., Bryk A. S., Congdon R. (2004) Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling (version 6). Scientific Software International, Lincolnwood

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards T., Aylward E., Berninger V., Field K., Parsons A., Richards A., Nagy W. (2006a) Individual fMRI activation in orthographic mapping and morpheme mapping after orthographic or morphological spelling treatment in child dyslexics. Journal of Neurolinguistics 19: 56–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards T., Aylward E., Raskind W., Abbott R., Field K., Parsons A. et al (2006) Converging evidence for triple word form theory in children with dyslexia. Developmental Neuropsychology 30: 547–589

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards T., Berninger V., Aylward E., Richards A., Thomson J., Nagy W. et al (2002) Reproducibility of proton MR spectroscopic imaging PEPSI): Comparison of dyslexic and normal reading children and effects of treatment on brain lactate levels during language tasks. American Journal of Neuroradiology 23: 1678–1685

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T., Berninger, V. & Fayol, M. (2009). FMRI activation differences between 11-year-old good and poor spellers’ access in working memory to temporary and long-term orthographic representations. Journal of Neurolinguistics. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2008.11.002.

  • Richards T., Berninger V., Nagy W., Parsons A., Field K., Richards A. (2005) Brain activation during language task contrasts in children with and without dyslexia: Inferring mapping processes and assessing response to spelling instruction. Educational and Child Psychology 22(2): 62–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards T., BerningerV. Winn W., Stock P., Wagner R., Muse A. et al (2007) fMRI activation in children with dyslexia during pseudoword aural repeat and visual decode: Before and after instruction. Neuropsychology 21: 732–747

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosner J. (1974) Helping children overcome learning difficulties. Walker & Co, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Seymour P. (1997) Foundations of orthographic development. In: Perfetti C., Rieben L., Fayol M. (eds) Learning to spell. Research, theory, and practices across languages. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, pp 319–337

    Google Scholar 

  • Silliman E. R., Bahr R. H., Peters M. L. (2006) Spelling patterns in preadolescents with atypical language skills: Phonological, morphological, and orthographic factors. Developmental Neuropsychology 20: 93–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Singson M., Mahoney D., Mann V. (2000) The relation between reading ability and morphological skills: Evidence from derivational suffixes. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal 12: 219–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Snowling M. (1980) The development of grapheme-phoneme correspondence in normal and dyslexic readers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 29: 294–305

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stahl S., Nagy W. (2006) Teaching word meaning. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Templeton S. (1991) Teaching and learning the English spelling system: Reconceptualizing method and purpose. Elementary School Journal 92: 185–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Templeton S., Bear D. (1992) Development of orthographic knowledge and the foundations of literacy: A memorial Feltschrift for Edmund Henderson. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Treiman R. (1985) Onsets and rimes as units of spoken syllables: Evidence from children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 39: 161–181

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Treiman R., Cassar M. (1997) Spelling acquisition in English. In: Perfetti C., Rieben L., Fayol M. (eds) Learning to spell. Research, theory, and practice. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp 61–80

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler A., Nagy W. (1989) The acquisition of English derivational morphology. Journal of Memory and Language 28: 649–667

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler A., Nagy W. (1990) Use of derivational morphology during reading. Cognition 36: 17–34

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venezky R. (1970) The structure of English orthography. Mouton, The Hague

    Google Scholar 

  • Venezky R. (1999) The American way of spelling. Guilford, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner R. K., Torgesen J. K., Rashotte C. A. (1999) The comprehensive test of phonological processing. Pro-Ed, Austin, TX

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler D. (1991) Wechsler intelligence scale for children (3rd ed.). Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner R., Torgesen J. (1987) The nature of phonological processing and its causal role in the acquisition of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin 101: 192–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner R. K., Torgesen J. K., Rashotte C. A. (1999) The comprehensive test of phonological processing. Pro-Ed, Austin, TX

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker J., Hauerwas L. (2006) Development of phonological, morphological, and orthographic knowledge in young spellers: The case of inflected verbs. Reading and Writing 19: 819–843

    Google Scholar 

  • White T., Power M., White S. (1989) Morphological analysis: Implications for teaching and understanding vocabulary growth in diverse elementary schools: Decoding and word meaning. Journal of Educational Psychology 82: 283–304

    Google Scholar 

  • Windsor J. (2000) The role of phonological opacity in reading achievement. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 43: 50–61

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Washington, 322 Miller, Box 353600, Seattle, WA, 98195-3600, USA

    Virginia W. Berninger & Robert D. Abbott

  2. Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA, USA

    William Nagy

  3. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Joanne Carlisle

Authors
  1. Virginia W. Berninger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert D. Abbott
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. William Nagy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Joanne Carlisle
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Virginia W. Berninger.

Additional information

Grants HD25858 and P50 33812 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) supported this research.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Berninger, V.W., Abbott, R.D., Nagy, W. et al. Growth in Phonological, Orthographic, and Morphological Awareness in Grades 1 to 6. J Psycholinguist Res 39, 141–163 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-009-9130-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-009-9130-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation