Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Effects of Two Different Incentives on Recruitment Rates of Families into a Prevention Program

  • Published:
Journal of Primary Prevention Aims and scope Submit manuscript

This study experimentally manipulated two incentives for participation (monetary: paid participation for sessions and setting: group vs. individual) in a child behavior problem prevention program to analyze their effects on recruitment and retention of families. A population of 690 eligible families from 15 preschools located in socially disadvantaged neighborhoods was invited to participate in a parent training (PT) program. The study recruited parents by using advertisements that had information describing only the indicated condition (i.e., PT in group-unpaid, or PT individual-unpaid, or PT in group-paid, or PT individual-paid). Results demonstrate significant impact of payment on recruitment and initial attendance. Training setting alone (individual or group) did not significantly influence these rates.

 Editors’ Strategic Implications: A compelling case is made for the utility of monetary incentives to increase proportions of low-income families in prevention research and programs. Evaluators and program designers should note the impressive use of the experimental design and hierarchical linear modeling to test the effects on recruitment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, R. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms & profile. Burlington: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aragona, J., Cassady, J., & Drabman, R. S. (1975). Treating overweight children through parental training and contingency contracting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 8, 269–278.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arbeitsgruppe Deutsche Child Behavior Checklist (1998). Elternfragebogen über das Verhalten von Kindern und Jugendlichen (CBCL/4-18) [Parent Questionnaire about the behavior of children and adolescents (CBCL 4-18)]. Köln: Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie des Kindes- und Jugendalters der Universität zu Köln.

  • August, G. J., Realmuto, G. M., Hektner, J. M., & Bloomquist, M. L. (2001). An integrated components preventive intervention for aggressive elementary school children: The Early Risers program. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 614–626.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bäse, B. (1995). Die sozial-räumliche Gliederung der Stadt Braunschweig. Methodik und Durchführung sozial-geographischer Analyse im städtischen Wohnumfeld auf der Grundlage des Zensus 1987 [The socio-geographic structure of the city of Brunswick. Method and realization of socio-geographical analysis in city residential areas on the basis of the census from 1987]. Braunschweig: Technische Universität Braunschweig.

  • Barkley, R. A., Shelton, T. L., Crosswait, C., Moorehouse, M., Fletcher, K., Barrett, S., et al. (2000). Multi-method psycho-educational intervention for preschool children with disruptive behavior: Preliminary results at post-treatment. Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 319–332.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barrera, M. J., Biglan, A., Taylor, T. K., Gunn, B. K., Smolkowski, K., Black, C., et al. (2002). Early elementary school intervention to reduce conduct problems: A randomized trial with Hispanic and non-Hispanic children. Prevention Science, 3, 83–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baydar, N., Reid, M. J., & Webster-Stratton, C. (2003). The role of mental health factors and program engagement in the effectiveness of a preventive parenting program for Head Start mothers. Child Development, 74, 1433–1453.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brestan, E. V., & Eyberg, S. M. (1998). Effective psychosocial treatments of conduct-disordered children and adolescents: 29 years, 82 studies, and 5,275 kids. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 180–189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bor, W., Sanders, M. R., & Markie-Dadds, C. (2002). The effects of the Triple P-positive parenting program on preschool children with co-occurring disruptive behavior and attentional/hyperactive difficulties. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 571–587.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brody, G. H., Ge, X., Kim, S. Y., Murry, V. M., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2003). Neighborhood disadvantage moderates associations of parenting and older sibling problem attitudes and behavior with conduct disorders in African American children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 211–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Capaldi, D., & Patterson, G. R. (1987). An approach to the problem of recruitment and retention rates for longitudinal research. Behavioral Assessment, 9, 169–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1999a). Initial impact of the Fast Track prevention trial for conduct problems: I. The high-risk sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 631–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (1999b). Initial impact of the Fast Track prevention trial for conduct problems: II. Classroom effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 648–657.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group (2002). The implementation of the Fast Track program: An example of a large-scale prevention science efficacy trial. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 1–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, A. M., & Goodman, S. H. (2002). The association between psychopathology in fathers versus mothers and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 746–773.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, C. E., Bremner, R., & Boyle, M. (1995). Large group community-based parenting programs for families of preschoolers at risk for disruptive behaviour disorders: Utilization, cost effectiveness, and outcome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 1141–1159.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dorsey, S., & Forehand, R. (2002). The relation of social capital to child psychosocial adjustment difficulties: The role of positive parenting and neighborhood dangerousness. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 25, 11–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dumas, J. E., & Werkele, C. (1995). Maternal reports of child behavior problems and personal distress as predictors of dysfunctional parenting. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 465–479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleischman, M. J. (1979). Using parenting salaries to control attrition and cooperation in therapy. Behavior Therapy, 10, 111–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fortin, L., & Bigras, M. (1997). Risk factors exposing young children to behaviour problems. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 2, 3–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, D. P., & Gottfredson, D. C. (2003). Differentiating completers from non-completers of a family-based prevention program. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 24, 111–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordis, E. B., Magolin, G., & John, R. S. (2001). Parents’ hostility in dyadic marital and triadic family settings and children's behavior problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 727–734.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, D., & Fogg, L. (2004). A critical analysis of the intent-to-treat principle in prevention research. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 25, 475–489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, D., Fogg, L., Webster-Stratton, C., Garvey, C., Julion, W., & Grady, J. (2003). Parent training of toddlers in day care in low-income urban communities. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 261–278.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, D. C., Neckerman, H. J., Koepsell, T. D., Liu, P., Asher, K. N., Beland, K., et al. (1997). Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculum among children in elementary school. Journal or the American Medical Association, 277, 1605–1611.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guyll, M., Spoth, R., & Redmond, C. (2003). The effects of incentives and research requirements on participation rates for a community-based preventive intervention research study. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 24, 25–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hawkins, D., Van Horn, M. L., & Arthur, M. W. (2004). Community variation in risk and protective factors and substance use outcomes. Prevention Science, 5, 213–220.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrichs, N., Bertram, H., Kuschel, A., & Hahlweg, K. (2005). Parent recruitment and retention in a universal prevention program for child behavior and emotional problems: Barriers to research and program participation. Prevention Science, 6, 275–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrichs, N., Krüger, S., & Guse, U. (2006). Eine experimentelle Studie zum Einfluss von Anreizen auf die Rekrutierung und Effektivität eines präventiven Elterntrainings. [An experimental study of the impact of incentives on recruitment and outcome in a preventive parenting program]. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 35, 72–86.

  • Ingoldsby, E., & Shaw, D. (2002). Neighborhood contextual factors and early-starting antisocial pathways. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5, 21–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Irvine, A. B., Biglan, A., Smolkowski, K., Metzler, C. W., & Ary, D. V. (1999). The effectiveness of a parenting skills program for parents of middle school students in small communities. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 811–825.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iwaniec, D. (1997). Evaluating parent training for emotionally abusive and neglectful parents: Comparing individual versus individual and group intervention. Research on Social Work Practice, 7, 329–349.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaffee, S. R. (2002). Pathways to adversity in young adulthood among early childbearers. Journal of Family Psychology, 16, 38–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, K. S., El-Mohandes, A., McNeely Johnson, D., Jarrett, M., Rose, A., & Cober, M. (2001). Retention of low income mothers in a parenting intervention study. Journal of Community Health, 26, 203–218.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C. (1982). Individual versus group control cognitive-behavioral self-control training: 1-Year follow-up. Behavior Therapy, 13, 241–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhood they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 309–337.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez, C. R., & Forgatch, M. S. (2001). Preventing problems with boys’ noncompliance: Effects of a parent training intervention for divorcing mothers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 416–428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKay, M. M., Gonazles, J. J., Quintana, E., Kim, L., & Abdul-Adil, J. (1999). Multiple family groups: An alternative for reducing disruptive behavioral difficulties of urban children. Research on Social Work Practice, 9, 593–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. E., & Prinz, R. J. (2003). Engagement of families in treatment for childhood conduct problems. Behavior Therapy, 34, 517–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller-Heyl, J., MacPhee, D., & Fritz, J. J. (1998). Dare to be you: A family-support, early prevention program. The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 257–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orrel-Valente, J. K., Pinderhughes, E. E., Valente, E., & Laird, R. D. (1999). If it's offered, will they come? Influences on parents’ participation in a community-based conduct problems prevention program. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 753–783.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pevsner, R. (1982). Group parent training versus individual family therapy: An outcome study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 13, 119–122.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R. J., & Miller, G. E. (1994). Family-based treatment for childhood antisocial behavior: Experimental influences on drop-out and engagement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 645–650.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R. J., Smith, E. P., Dumas, J. E., Laughlin, J. E., White, D. W., & Barron, R. (2001). Recruitment and retention of participants in prevention trials involving family-based interventions. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20(1S), 31–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., Cheong, Y. F., & Congdon, R. (2004). HLM 6: Hierarchical linear and nonlinear modeling. Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reese, E., Vera, M., Simon, R., & Ikeda, M. (2000). The role of families and care givers as risk and protective factors in preventing youth violence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 3, 61–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, J. B., Eddy, J. M., Fetrow, R. A., & Stoolmiller, M. (1999). Description and immediate impacts of a preventive intervention for conduct problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 483–517.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, W. J., & Bailey-Dempsey, C. (1995). The effects of monetary incentives on school performance. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 76, 331–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, M. R. (1999). Triple P-positive parenting program: Towards an empirically validated multilevel parenting and family support strategy for the prevention of behavior and emotional problems in children. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 71–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, M. R., Markie-Dadds, C., Tully, L. A., & Bor, W. (2000). The Triple P-positive parenting program: A comparison of enhanced, standard, and self-directed behavioral family intervention for parents of children with early onset conduct problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 624–640.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, M. R., Markie-Dadds, C., & Turner, K. M. T. (2001). Practitioner's manual for standard Triple P. Milton, Queensland: Families International Publishing Pty. Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snell-Johns, J., Mendez, J. L., & Smith, B. H. (2004). Evidence-based solutions for overcoming access barriers, decreasing attrition, and promoting change with underserved families. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 19–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R., Goldberg, C., & Redmond, C. (1999). Engaging families in longitudinal preventive intervention research: Discrete-time survival analysis of socioeconomic and social-emotional risk factors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 157–163.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R., & Redmond, C. (1994). Effective recruitment of parents into family-focused prevention research: A comparison of two strategies. Psychology and Health, 9, 353–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spoth, R., Redmond, C., Hockaday, C., & Shin, C. Y. (1996). Barriers to participation in family skills preventive interventions and their evaluations. Family Relations, 45, 247–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, M. D., Steier, F., & Todd, T. C. (1982). Paying families for attending sessions: Counteracting the dropout problem. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 8, 371–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stormshak, E. A., Kaminski, R. A., & Goodman, M. R. (2002). Enhancing the parenting skills of head start families during the transition to kindergarten. Prevention Science, 3, 223–234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Wei, E., Farrington, D. P., & Wikstroem, P. H. (2002). Risk and promotive effects in the explanation of persistent serious delinquency in boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 111–123.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. A., & Stewart, J. H. (1999). Corporal punishment by American parents: National data on prevalence, chronicity, severity, and duration, in relation to child and family characteristics. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 2, 55–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tillitski, C. J. (1990). A meta-analysis of estimated effect sizes for groups versus individual versus control treatments. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy, 40, 215–224.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Troxel, W. M., & Matthews, K. A. (2004). What are the costs of marital conflict and dissolution to children's physical health? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7, 29–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C. (1998). Preventing conduct problems in head start children: Strengthening parenting competencies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 715–730.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., & Hammond, M. (1997). Treating children with early-onset conduct problems: A comparison of child and parent training interventions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 93–109.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, M. J., & Hammond, M. (2001). Preventing conduct problems, promoting social competence: A parent and teacher training partnership in head start. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 283–302.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., & Taylor, T. (2001). Nipping early risk factors in the bud: Preventing substance abuse, delinquency, and violence in adolescence through interventions targeted at young children (0–8 years). Prevention Science, 2, 165–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, B., Harris, V., Catron, T., & Han, S. S. (2003). Efficacy of the recap intervention program for children with concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 364–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, S. R. (1997). Individual versus group education. Is one better? Patient Education and Counseling, 32, S67–S75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zubrick, S. R., Northey, K., Silburn, S. R., Williams, A. W., Blair, E., Robertson, D., et al. (2005). Prevention of child behaviour problems via universal implementation of a group behavioural family intervention. Prevention Science, 6, 287–304.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research reported in this project was funded by a young investigator grant of the Jacobs Foundation, Zürich (Switzerland) to the author.

The author would like to thank Lynlee Tanner and Dr. Dave Atkins for their help in exploring methods of analyzing the data, Dr. Sandra Morissette for her assistance in revising the English and Dr. Kurt Hahlweg for his support during this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Technical University of Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany

    Nina Heinrichs

  2. Institute of Psychology, Department of Clinical Psychology, Psychotherapy and Assessment, Spielmannstr. 12a, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany

    Nina Heinrichs

Authors
  1. Nina Heinrichs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nina Heinrichs.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Heinrichs, N. The Effects of Two Different Incentives on Recruitment Rates of Families into a Prevention Program. J Primary Prevent 27, 345–365 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-006-0038-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-006-0038-8

KEYWORDS:

Search

Navigation