Abstract
We aimed to clarify whether relationships of behavioural activation, avoidance, and response-contingent positive reinforcement with subjective wellbeing components supported a behavioural subjective wellbeing model. We used a correlational, cross-sectional design, and collected data online from a convenience and snowball sample of 224 participants aged 18–72 years using an anonymous survey. We conducted hierarchical multiple regression analyses and structural equation modelling. Behavioural activation positively predicted significant unique variance in (a) positive affect, b = 0.44, 99.2% CI [0.30, 0.58], p < 0.001, \(\eta_{p}^{2}\) = 0.27, and (b) satisfaction with life, b = 0.19, 99.2% CI [0.07, 0.31], p < 0.001, \(\eta_{p}^{2}\) = 0.08. Behavioural activation negatively predicted significant unique negative affect variance, b = − 0.17, 99.2% CI [− 0.30, − 0.03], p = 0.001, \(\eta_{p}^{2}\) = 0.05. Avoidance positively predicted significant negative affect variance, b = 0.45, 99.2% CI [0.31, 0.58], p < 0.001, \(\eta_{p}^{2}\) = 0.27. Most other predictors had non-significant effects when behavioural variables were added to our models. Response-contingent positive reinforcement mediated relationships of behavioural activation with positive affect, negative affect, and satisfaction with life. Our results suggest behavioural variables may explain some affect variance often attributed to other predictors. The pattern of relationships we found supports a behavioural subjective wellbeing model focussed on response-contingent positive reinforcement. Our findings suggest these relationships may not be unique to depressed populations. Our results do not indicate causality, but suggest testing causality is warranted in the future.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Argyle, M., Martin, M., & Crossland, J. (1989). Happiness as a function of personality and social encounters. In J. Forgas & J. Innes (Eds.), Recent advances in social psychology: An international perspective (pp. 189–203). North Holland: Elsevier.
Ben-Zur, H. (2012). Loneliness, optimism, and wellbeing among married, divorced, and widowed individuals. The Journal of Psychology, 146, 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2010.548414.
Berry, W. D., & Feldman, S. (1985). Multiple regression in practice. London: Sage Publications Inc.
Bijettebier, P., Beck, I., Claes, L., & Vandereycken, W. (2009). Gray’s reinforcement sensitivity theory as a framework for research on personality—Psychopathology associations. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 421–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.04.002.
Burns, R. A., & Ma, J. (2015). Examining the association between psychological wellbeing with daily and intra-individual variation in subjective wellbeing. Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 34–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.023.
Carvalho, J. P., Gawrysiak, M. J., Hellmuth, J. C., McNulty, J. K., Magdison, J. F., Lejuez, C. W., et al. (2011). The Reward Probability Index: Design and validation of a scale measuring access to environmental reward. Behaviour Therapy, 42, 249–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2010.05.004.
Carvalho, J. P., & Hopko, D. R. (2011). Behavioural theory of depression: Reinforcement as a mediating variable between avoidance and depression. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42, 154–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.10.001.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2014). Dispositional optimism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18, 293–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.02.003.
Carver, C. S., & White, T. L. (1994). Behavioural inhibition, behavioural activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.319.
Chang, E. C., & Sanna, L. J. (2001). Optimism, pessimism and positive and negative affectivity in middle-aged adults: Test of a cognitive-affective model of psychological adjustment. Psychology and Ageing, 16, 524–531. https://doi.org/10.1037//0882-7974.16.3.525.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analyses for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Crawford, J. R., & Henry, J. D. (2004). The positive and negative affect schedule (PANAS): Construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 245–265. https://doi.org/10.1348/0144665031752934.
Cummins, R. A. (2010). Subjective wellbeing, homeostatically protected mood, and depression: A synthesis. Journal of Happiness Studies, 11, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-009-9167-0.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. J., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.
Diener, E., Sandvik, E., Seidlitz, L., & Diener, M. (1993). The relationship between income and subjective wellbeing: Relative or absolute? Social Indicators Research, 28, 195–223. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01079018.
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective wellbeing: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 276–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276.
Dimidjian, S., Barrera, M., Jr., Martell, C., Muñoz, R. F., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2011). The origins and current status of behavioural activation treatments for depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104535.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146.
Glaesmer, H., Reif, W., Martin, A., Mewes, R., Brahler, E., Zenger, M., et al. (2012). Psychometric properties and population-based norms of the Life Orientation Test—Revised (LOT-R). British Journal of Health Psychology, 17, 432–445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8287.2011.02046.x.
Gray, J. A. (1990). Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 269–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939008410799.
Gray, J. A., & McNaughton, N. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Headey, B. (2010). The set-point theory of wellbeing has serious flaws: On the eve of a scientific revolution? Social Indicators Research, 97, 7–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-009-9559-x.
Kanter, J. W., Mulick, P. S., Busch, A. M., Berlin, K. S., & Martell, C. R. (2007). The behavioural activation for depression scale (BADS): Psychometric properties and factor structure. Journal of Psychopathology Behavioural Assessment, 29, 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-006-9038-5.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Lewinsohn, P. M. (1974). A behavioural approach to depression. In R. J. Friedman & M. M. Katz (Eds.), The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 157–178). New York, NY: Wiley.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hoberman, H., & Hautzinger, M. (1985). An integrative theory of depression. In S. Reiss & R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical issues in behaviour therapy (pp. 331–359). New York, NY: Academic.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005a). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803.
Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005b). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.111.
Mazzucchelli, T. G., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2010). Behavioural activation interventions for wellbeing: A meta-analysis. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 105–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760903569154.
Mazzucchelli, T. G., Rees, C. S., & Kane, R. T. (2009). Group behavioural activation and mindfulness therapy for the well-being of non-clinical adults: A preliminary open trial. The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist, 2, 256–271. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1754470X09990201.
Pickering, A. D., Diaz, A., & Gray, J. A. (1995). Personality and reinforcement: An exploration using a maze-learning task. Personality and Individual Differences, 18, 541–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)00182-R.
Read, A., Mazzucchelli, T. G., & Kane, R. T. (2016). A preliminary evaluation of a single session behavioural activation intervention to improve well-being and prevent depression in carers. Clinical Psychologist, 20, 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12084.
Sarason, I. G., Johnson, J. H., & Siegel, J. M. (1978). Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the Life Experiences Survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 932–946. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.932.
Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063.
Smits, D. J. M., & Boeck, P. D. (2006). From BIS/BAS to the big five. European Journal of Personality, 20, 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.583.
Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. M. (2006). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the presence and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80.
Taubitz, L. E., Pedersen, W. S., & Larson, C. L. (2015). BAS Reward Responsiveness: A unique predictor of positive psychological functioning. Personality and Individual Differences, 80, 107–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.02.029.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.
Wood, A. M., Froh, J. F., & Geraghty, W. A. (2010). Gratitude and well-being: A review and theoretical integration. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 890–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.005.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gill, C.C., Kane, R.T. & Mazzucchelli, T.G. Activation, Avoidance, and Response-Contingent Positive Reinforcement Predict Subjective Wellbeing. J Happiness Stud 20, 331–349 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9949-8
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-017-9949-8