Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Putting the ‘app’ in Happiness: A Randomised Controlled Trial of a Smartphone-Based Mindfulness Intervention to Enhance Wellbeing

  • Research Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Smartphones are revolutionizing approaches to wellbeing investment. Those seeking greater happiness can engage with thousands of downloadable self-help applications instantly, yet their effectiveness remains largely unknown. This investigation explored the viability of delivering a positive psychological intervention in application format to authentic happiness seekers. A smartphone-based randomized-controlled trial was conducted with a diverse self-selecting pool, randomly assigned to engage with an empirically supported mindfulness intervention (n = 57) or a control intervention (n = 64) for 10 days. The study explored smartphone methodology, the importance of empirically based content for wellbeing enhancement and the extent to which user experience related to wellbeing gains. Results of repeated measures ANOVAs showed statistically significant increases in positive affect with a medium effect size and reduced depressive symptoms with a small effect size, although no statistically significant differences in satisfaction with life, flourishing or negative affect were found. No statistically significant gains were observed in the control condition. Ratings of task enjoyment were positively correlated (Pearson’s r) with positive affect increase. Findings support the viability of smartphone-based interventions to significantly enhance elements of wellbeing, underscoring the importance of application content and the role of person-activity fit. This investigation presents implications for happiness seeking strategies in the real world whilst showcasing a dynamic method of intervention delivery that can benefit future research and practice. If the greatest mission of positive psychology is to enhance global flourishing, the potential of smartphone-based interventions may play a vital role.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 125–143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baer, R. A., Lykins, E. L. B., & Peters, J. R. (2012). Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological wellbeing in long-term meditators and matched nonmeditators. Journal of Positive Psychology, 7(3), 230–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergsma, A. (2008). Do self-help books help? Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 341–360.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boehm, J. K., Lyubomirsky, S., & Sheldon, K. M. (2011). A longitudinal experimental study comparing the effectiveness of happiness-enhancing strategies in Anglo Americans and Asian Americans. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 1152–1167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bolier, L., Haverman, M., Westerhof, G. J., Riper, H., Smit, F., & Bohlmeijer, E. (2013). Positive psychology interventions: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies. BMC Public Health, 13, 119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulos, M. N. K., Wheeler, S., Tavares, C., & Jones, R. (2011). How smartphones are changing the face of mobile and participatory healthcare: An overview, with example from eCAALYX. BioMedical Engineering OnLine, 10, 24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Busis, N. (2010). Mobile phones to improve the practice of neurology. Neurologic Clinics, 28(2), 395–410.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carmody, J., & Baer, R. A. (2009). How long does a mindfulness-based stress reduction program need to be? A review of class contact hours and effect sizes for psychological distress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65(6), 627–638.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavanagh, K., Strauss, C., Cicconi, F., Griffiths, N., Wyper, A., & Jones, F. (2013). A randomised controlled trial of a brief online mindfulness-based intervention. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 51(9), 573–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clough, B. A., & Casey, L. M. (2011). Technological adjuncts to enhance current psychotherapy practices: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 279–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, J. R., & Henry, J. D. (2004). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): Construct validity, measurement properties and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 43, 245–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Wirtz, D., Tov, W., Kim-Prieto, C., Choi, D., Oishi, S., et al. (2009). New measures of well-being: Flourishing and positive and negative feelings. Social Indicators Research, 39, 247–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dillbeck, M. C., & Orme-Johnson, D. W. (1987). Physiological differences between transcendental meditation and rest. American Psychologist, 42(9), 879–881.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dufau, S., Dunabeitia, J. A., Moret-Tatay, C., McGonigal, A., Peeters, D., et al. (2011). Smart phone, smart science: How the use of smartphones can revolutionize research in cognitive science. PLoS ONE, 6, e24974.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dulin, P. L., Gonzalez, V. M., King, D. K., Giroux, D., & Bacon, S. (2013). Development of a smartphone-based, self-administered intervention system for alcohol use disorders. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 31(3), 321–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehrenreich, B. (2010). Smile or die: How positive thinking fooled America and the World. London: Granta.

  • Emmons, R. A., & McCullough, M. E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens: An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective wellbeing in daily life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 466–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eonta, A. M., Christon, L. M., Hourigan, S. E., Ravindran, N., Vrana, S. R., & Southam-Gerow, M. A. (2011). Using everyday technology to enhance evidence-based treatments. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(6), 513–520.

  • Ferguson, Y. L., & Sheldon, K. M. (2013). Trying to be happier really can work: Two experimental studies. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(1), 23–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2008). The dynamic spread of happiness in a large social network: Longitudinal analysis over 20 years in the Framingham Heart Study. British Medical Journal, 337, a2338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 15(3), 218–226.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glück, T. M., & Maercker, A. (2011). A randomized controlled pilot study of a brief web-based mindfulness training. BMC Psychiatry, 11, 175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Happify. (2014). The science of happiness. Retrieved Sept 2, 2014 from http://my.happify.com/public/science/.

  • Harnett, P. H., Whittingham, K., Puhakka, E., Hodges, J., Spry, C., & Dob, R. (2010). The short-term impact of a brief group-based mindfulness therapy program on depression and life satisfaction. Mindfulness, 1(3), 183–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, R., Ivtzan, I., & Hart, D. (2013). Mind the gap in mindfulness research: A comparative account of the leading schools of thought. Review of General Psychology, 17(4), 453–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hebden, L., Cook, A., Van der Ploeg, H. P., & Allman-Farinelli, M. (2012). Development of smartphone applications for nutrition and physical activity behavior change. JMIR Research Protocols, 1(2), e9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Intille, S. S. (2012). Emerging technology for studying daily life. In M. R. Mehl & T. S. Conner (Eds.), Handbook of research methods for studying daily life (pp. 267–282). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keng, S., Smoski, J. J., & Robins, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: A review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 6(31), 1041–1056.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khalaf (2013). Flurry five-year report: It’s an app world. The Web Just Lives in It. Retrieved August 21, 2013. http://blog.flurry.com/bid/95723/Flurry-Five-Year-Report-It-s-an-App-World-The-Web-Just-Lives-in-It

  • Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330, 932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 480–498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaRosa, J. (2013). $10.4 Billion self-improvement market survives scandals and recession. Retrieved June 10, 2014 from http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/1/prweb10275905.htm.

  • Layous, K., Lee, H. C., Choi, I., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2013). Culture matters when designing a successful happiness-increasing activity: A comparison of the United States and South Korea. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44, 1294–1303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Layous, K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2014). The how, why what, when, and who of happiness: Mechanisms underlying the success of positive interventions. In J. Gruber & J. Moscowitz (Eds.), Positive emotion: Integrating the light sides and dark sides (pp. 473–495). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Layous, K., Nelson, S. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). What is the optimal way to deliver a positive activity intervention? The case of writing about one’s best possible selves. Journal of Happiness Studies, 14(2), 635–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. (2003). Does the positive psychology movement have legs? Psychological Inquiry, 14(2), 93–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luxton, D. D., McCann, R. A., Bush, N. E., Mishkind, M. C., & Reger, G. M. (2011). mHealth for mental health: Integrating smartphone technology in behavioral healthcare. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42(6), 505–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ly, K. H., Dahl, J., Carlbring, P., & Andersson, G. (2012). Development and initial evaluation of a smartphone application based on acceptance and commitment therapy. SpringerPlus, 1, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lykken, D., & Tellegen, A. (1996). Happiness is a stochastic phenomenon. Psychological Science, 7, 186–189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., Dickerhoof, R., Boehm, J. K., & Sheldon, K. M. (2011). Becoming happier takes both a will and a proper way: An experimental longitudinal intervention to boost well-being. Emotion, 11, 391–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005a). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., & Layous, K. (2013). How do simple positive activities increase well-being? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(1), 57–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyubomirsky, S., Sheldon, K. M., & Schkade, D. (2005b). Pursuing happiness: The architecture of sustainable change. Review of General Psychology, 9, 111–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzucchelli, T. G., Kane, R. T., & Rees, C. S. (2010). Behavioural activation interventions for wellbeing: A meta-analysis. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(2), 105–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McTavish, F. M., Chih, M., Shah, D., & Gustafson, D. H. (2012). How patients recovering from alcoholism use a smartphone intervention. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 8(4), 294–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. (2012). The smartphone psychology manifesto. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(3), 221–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, J., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Klein, B. (2010). Positive psychology and the internet: A mental health opportunity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 6(2), 30–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohr, D. C., Burns, M. N., Schueller, S. M., Clarke, G., & Klinkman, M. (2013). Special section: Health information technology and mental health services research: A path forward. Behavioral intervention technologies: Evidence review and recommendations for future research in mental health. General Hospital Psychiatry, 35, 332–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, S. K., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). Finding happiness: Tailoring positive activities for optimal well-being benefits. In M. Tugade, M. Shiota, & L. Kirby (Eds.), Handbook of positive emotions. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norrish, J. M., & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2007). Is the study of happiness a worthy scientific pursuit? Social Indicators Research, 3, 393–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ozdalga, E., Ozdalga, A., & Ahuja, N. (2012). The smartphone in medicine: A review of current and potential use among physicians and students. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14(5), 142–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parks, A. C., & Biswas-Diener, R. (2013). Positive interventions: Past, present and future. In T. Kashdan & J. Ciarrochi (Eds.), Mindfulness, acceptance, and positive psychology: The seven foundations of well-being (pp. 140–165). Oakland, CA: Context.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parks, A., Della Porta, M., Pierce, R. S., Zilca, R., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2012). Pursuing happiness in everyday life: The characteristics and behaviors of online happiness seekers. Emotion, 12(6), 1222–1234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plaza, I., Demarzo, M. M. P., Herrera-Mercadal, P., & García-Campayo, J. (2013). Mindfulness-based mobile applications: Literature review and analysis of current features. JMIR mhealth and uhealth, 1(2), e24.

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raento, M., Oulasvirta, A., & Eagle, N. (2009). Smartphones: An emerging tool for social scientists. Sociological Methods & Research, 37(3), 426–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, W. T., Rivera, D. E., Atienza, A. A., Nilsen, W., Allison, S. M., & Mermelstein, R. (2011). Health behavior models in the age of mobile interventions: Are our theories up to the task? Translational Behavioral Medicine, 1(1), 53–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritterband, L. M., Thorndike, F. P., Cox, D. J., Kovatchev, B. P., & Gonder-Frederick, L. A. (2009). A behavior change model for internet interventions. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 38(1), 18–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, G. M. (1987). Self help treatment books and the commercialization of psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 42, 46–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, G. M. (1993). Self-help or hype? Comments on psychology’s failure to advance self-care. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24, 340–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schueller, S. M. (2010). Preferences for positive psychology exercises. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 192–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schueller, S. M. (2011). To each his own well-being bosting intervention: Using preference to guide selection. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(4), 300–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schueller, S. M., & Parks, A. C. (2012). Disseminating self-help: Positive psychology exercises in an online trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 14, e63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness. New York: Simon & Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being. NY: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 51–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60, 410–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shafer, A. B. (2006). Meta-analysis of the factor structures of four depression questionnaires: Beck, CES-D, Hamilton, and Zung. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(1), 123–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, S. L., & Carlson, L. E. (2009). The art and science of mindfulness: Integrating mindfulness into psychology and the helping professions. Washington, DC: American Psychology Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sheldon, K. M., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2006). How to increase and sustain positive emotion: The effects of expressing gratitude and visualizing best possible selves. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 73–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sin, N. L., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2009). Enhancing well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms with positive psychology interventions: A practice friendly meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 467–487.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, C., & Bryan, A. (2012). Rebranding exercise: There’s an App for that. American Journal of Health Promotion, 27(2), 69–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Superbetter. (2014). About Superbetter. Retrieved Sept 2, 2014 from https://www.superbetter.com/about.

  • Ussher, M., Spatz, A., Copland, C., Nicolaou, A., Cargill, A., Amni-Tabrizi, N., et al. (2014). Immediate effects of a brief mindfulness-based body scan on patients with chronic pain. Journal of Behavioural Medicine, 37(1), 127–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, T. L., Joseph, J., Yardley, L., & Michie, S. (2010). Using the Internet to promote health behavior change: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the impact of theoretical basis, use of behavior change techniques, and mode of delivery on efficacy. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 12(1), e4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfenden, L., Brennan, L., & Britton, B. I. (2010). Intelligent obesity interventions using smartphones. Preventive Medicine: An International Journal Devoted to Practice and Theory, 51(6), 519–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeidan, F., Gordon, N. S., Merchant, J., & Goolkasian, P. (2010). The effects of brief mindfulness meditation training on experimentally induced pain. Journal of Pain, 11(3), 199–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank their colleagues, friends and family for their valuable support, guidance, and feedback throughout the project. Special thanks also to Dr Timothy Sharp at The Happiness Institute and Rachel Green at The Emotional Intelligence Institute for their support in recruiting participants, to Headspace for their agreed usage of their smartphone application, and to all the Happiness Seekers who volunteered their time and energy to take part.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Annika Howells.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Howells, A., Ivtzan, I. & Eiroa-Orosa, F.J. Putting the ‘app’ in Happiness: A Randomised Controlled Trial of a Smartphone-Based Mindfulness Intervention to Enhance Wellbeing. J Happiness Stud 17, 163–185 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9589-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-014-9589-1

Keywords

Navigation