Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Happiness is in our Nature: Exploring Nature Relatedness as a Contributor to Subjective Well-Being

  • Research paper
  • Published:
Journal of Happiness Studies Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Nature relatedness (NR) describes the affective, cognitive, and experiential aspects of human–nature relationships (Nisbet in Environ Behav 41: 715–740, 2009). Evidence from three studies suggests that individual differences in NR are associated with differences in well-being. In study 1 (N = 184), we explore associations between NR and a variety of well-being indicators, and use multiple regression analyses to demonstrate the unique relationship of NR with well-being, while controlling for other environmental measures. We replicate well-being correlates with a sample of business people (N = 145) in Study 2. In study 3 (N = 170), we explore the influence of environmental education on NR and well-being, and find that changes in NR mediate the relationship between environmental education and changes in vitality. We discuss the potential for interventions to improve psychological health and promote environmental behaviour.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Given the benefits of diverse types of nature—urban natural spaces, parks, and views of natural elements—here, we use the term nature to refer to both city and wilderness environments.

  2. We omitted the fourth knowledge subscale as we felt many of the items required such technical expertise as might only be found among individuals with a background in science.

  3. The NEP correlated positively with autonomy (r = .18) and personal growth (r = .19). The NEC was positively correlated with personal growth (r = .16). The Actual Commitment subscale of the Ecology scale had a positive association with positive affect (r = .15) and autonomy (r = .15), and the Affect subscale correlated positively with negative affect (r = .21) and negatively with environmental mastery (r = −.18).

  4. All variables met the assumptions of linear regression. Details of the regression analyses are available from the authors.

  5. Both the NEC and Ecology-Affect scales remained positively associated with negative affect, negatively associated with environmental mastery and positive relations with others, after adding NR to the model. Ecology-Affect was negatively associated with personal growth and self-acceptance. The NEC was negatively associated with purpose in life and life satisfaction. The NEP was marginally and positively associated with life satisfaction.

  6. The two sets of Alphas provided here and for subsequent measures indicate Time 1/Time 2.

  7. In the Time 1 survey, participants were asked to indicate how much, in general, they felt each emotion; the Time 2 survey asked participants to indicate how much, over the past several weeks, they felt each emotion.

References

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bragg, E. A. (1996). Towards ecological self: Deep ecology meets constructionist self-theory. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16, 93–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, K. W., & Kasser, T. (2005). Are psychological and ecological well-being compatible? The role of values, mindfulness, and lifestyle. Social Indicators Research, 74, 349–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burns, G. W. (1998). Nature-guided therapy: Brief integrative strategies for health and well-being. Philadelphia, PA: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burns, G. W. (1999). Nature-guided therapy: A case example of ecopsychology in clinical practice. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 3, 9–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chawla, L. (1999). Life paths into effective environmental action. Journal of Environmental Education, 31, 15–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clayton, S. (2003). Environmental identity: A conceptual and an operational definition. In S. Clayton & S. Opotow (Eds.), Identity and the natural environment: The psychological significance of nature (pp. 45–65). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conn, S. (1995). When the earth hurts, who responds? In T. Roszak, M. E. Gomes, & A. D. Kanner (Eds.), Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth healing the mind. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conn, S. (1998). Living in the earth: Ecopsychology, health and psychotherapy. The Humanistic Psychologist, 26, 179–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, J. L., Babiker, I. E., & Miller, P. McC. (1981). Psychiatric problems and first year examinations in overseas students at Edinburgh University. Journal of Adolescence, 4, 261–270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Vries, S., Verheij, R. A., Groenewegen, P. P., & Spreeuwenberg, P. (2003). Natural environments—healthy environments? An exploratory analysis of the relationship between greenspace and health. Environment and Planning A, 35, 1717–1731.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlap, R. E., Van Liere, K. D., Mertig, A. G., & Jones, R. E. (2000). Measuring endorsement of the new ecological paradigm: A revised NEP scale. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 425–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dutcher, D. D., Finley, J. C., Luloff, A. E., & Buttolph Johnson, J. (2007). Connectivity with nature as a measure of environmental values. Environment and Behavior, 39, 474–493.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, R. J., & Thompson, F. (1997). Culture and the environment in the Pacific Northwest. American Political Science Review, 91, 885–987.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faber Taylor, A., & Kuo, F. E. (2009). Children with attention deficits concentrate better after walk in the park. Journal of Attention Disorders, 12, 402–409.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feral, C. H. (1998). The connectedness model and optimal development: Is ecopsychology the answer to emotional well-being? The Humanistic Psychologist, 26, 243–274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L. (2000). Cultivating positive emotions to optimize health and well-being. Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 1. Retrieved March 12, 2005, from http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/cultivating.pdf.

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive emotions broaden the scope of attention and thought-action repertoires. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 313–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward emotional well-being. Psychological Science, 13, 172–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Levenson, R. W. (1998). Positive emotions speed recovery from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 12, 191–220.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., & Losada, M. F. (2005). Positive affect and the complex dynamics of human flourishing. American Psychologist, 60, 678–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fredrickson, B. L., Mancuso, R. A., Branigan, C., & Tugade, M. (2000). The undoing effect of positive emotions. Motivation and Emotion, 24, 237–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frumkin, H. (2001). Beyond toxicity: Human health and the natural environment. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20, 234–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gullone, E. (2000). The biophilia hypothesis and life in the 21st century: Increasing mental health or increasing pathology? Journal of Happiness Studies, 1, 293–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartig, T., Böök, A., Garvill, J., Olsson, T., & Gärling, T. (1996). Environmental influences on psychological restoration. Scandanavian Journal of Psychology, 37, 378–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartig, T., Catalano, R., & Ong, M. (2007). Cold summer weather, constrained restoration, and the use of antidepressants in Sweden. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27, 107–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, T. R., Black, A. M., Fountaine, K. M., & Knotts, D. J. (1997). Reflection and attentional recovery as distinct benefits of restorative environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, 165–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzog, T. R., Maguire, C. P., & Nebel, M. B. (2003). Assessing the restorative components of environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 159–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, G. S. (1997). Ecological psychology: Creating a more earth-friendly human nature. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joireman, J. A., Van Lange, P. A. M., & Van Vugt, M. (2004). Who cares about the environmental impact of cars? Those with an eye toward the future. Environment and Behavior, 36, 187–206.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, P. H., Jr. (1997). Developmental psychology and the biophilia hypothesis: Children’s affiliation with nature. Developmental Review, 17, 1–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kals, E., & Maes, J. (2004). Sustainable development and emotions. In P. Schmuck & W. P. Schultz (Eds.), Psychology of sustainable development (pp. 97–122). Norwell, MA: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, R. (2001). The nature of the view from home: Psychological benefits. Environment and Behavior, 33, 507–542.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, R., & Kaplan, S. (1989). The experience of nature: A psychological perspective. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kashdan, T. B., Biswas-Diener, R., & King, L. A. (2008). Reconsidering happiness: The costs of distinguishing between hedonics and eudaimonia. Journal of Positive Psychology, 3, 219–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S. R. (1997). Kinship to mastery: Biophilia in human evolution and development. Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S. R. (2005). Building for life: Designing and understanding the human-nature connection. Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellert, S. R., & Wilson, E. O. (Eds.). (1993). The biophilia hypothesis. Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 17, 297–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Korpela, K., & Hartig, T. (1996). Restorative qualities of favorite places. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16, 221–233.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, K., Gärling, T., & Stormark, K. M. (2001). Rating scale measures of restorative components of environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 31–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laumann, K., Gärling, T., & Stormark, K. M. (2003). Selective attention and heart rate responses to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23, 125–134.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, R. E., Diener, E., & Suh, E. (1996). Discriminant validity of well-being measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 616–628.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maloney, M. P., Ward, M. P., & Braucht, G. N. (1975). A revised scale for the measurement of ecological attitudes and knowledge. American Psychologist, 30, 787–790.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, F. S., & Frantz, C. M. (2004). The connectedness to nature scale: A measure of individuals’ feeling in community with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24, 503–515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, R., & Popham, F. (2008). Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: An observational population study. The Lancet, 372, 1655–1660.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Naess, A. (1973). The shallow and the deep ecology movements. Inquiry, 16, 95–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nisbet, E. (2003). Relatedness to nature and subjective well-being: Are nature lovers happier people? Unpublished manuscript, Carleton University.

  • Nisbet, E. K. L. (2005). The human–nature connection: Increasing nature relatedness, environmental concern, and well-being through education. Unpublished master’s thesis, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

  • Nisbet, E. K. L., Zelenski, J. M., & Murphy, S. A. (2007). The human nature connection: Sustainable development policy implications. In G. B. Doern (Ed.), Innovation, science, environment: Canadian policies and performance, 2007–2008 (pp. 200–218). Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nisbet, E. K., Zelenski, J. M., & Murphy, S. A. (2009). The nature relatedness scale: Linking individuals’ connection with nature to environmental concern and behaviour. Environment and Behavior, 41, 715–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nix, G., Ryan, R. M., Manly, J. B., & Deci, E. L. (1999). Revitalization through self-regulation: The effects of autonomous versus controlled motivation on happiness and vitality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 266–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oyane, N. M. F., Bjelland, I., Pallesen, S., Holsten, F., & Bjorvatn, B. (2008). Seasonality is associated with anxiety and depression: The Hordaland health study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 105, 147–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pelletier, L. G., Legault, L. R., & Tuson, K. M. (1996). The environmental satisfaction scale: A measure of satisfaction with local environmental conditions and government environmental policies. Environment and Behavior, 28, 5–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069–1081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 719–727.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff, C. D., Singer, B. H., & Love, G. D. (2004). Positive health: Connecting well-being with biology. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 359, 1383–1394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, P. W. (2000). Empathizing with nature: The effects of perspective taking on concern for environmental issues. Journal of Social Issues, 56, 391–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz, P. W. (2002). Inclusion with nature: The psychology of human–nature relations. In P. Schmuck & W. P. Schultz (Eds.), Psychology of sustainable development (pp. 62–78). Norwell, MA: Kluwer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sebba, R. (1991). The landscapes of childhood: The reflection of childhood’s environment in adult memories and in children’s attitudes. Environment and Behavior, 23, 395–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, R. S. (1993). Biophilia, biophobia, and natural landscapes. In S. Kellert & E. O. Wilson (Eds.), The biophilia hypothesis (pp. 73–137). Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulrich, R. S., Simons, R. F., Losito, B. D., Fiorito, E., Miles, M. A., & Zelson, M. (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 11, 201–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ward Thompson, C., Aspinall, P., & Montarzino, A. (2008). The childhood factor: Adult visits to green places and the significance of childhood experience. Environment and Behavior, 40, 111–1443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. O. (1984). Biophilia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E. O. (1993). Biophilia and the conservation ethic. In S. Kellert & E. O. Wilson (Eds.), The biophilia hypothesis (pp. 31–41). Washington, DC: Island Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winter, D., & Koger, S. M. (2004). The psychology of environmental problems. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This paper was prepared while the first author was supported by a Doctoral Fellowship from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRCC), and with the support of a SSHRCC Standard Research Grant (410-2003-1643) to the second author. We wish to thank members of the CUHL Lab for their assistance with data entry.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada

    Elizabeth K. Nisbet & John M. Zelenski

  2. Sprott School of Business, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada

    Steven A. Murphy

Authors
  1. Elizabeth K. Nisbet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John M. Zelenski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Steven A. Murphy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth K. Nisbet.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Nisbet, E.K., Zelenski, J.M. & Murphy, S.A. Happiness is in our Nature: Exploring Nature Relatedness as a Contributor to Subjective Well-Being. J Happiness Stud 12, 303–322 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-010-9197-7

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-010-9197-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation