Skip to main content
Log in

Initial Findings from a Feasibility Trial Examining the SafeCare Dad to Kids Program with Marginalized Fathers

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Family Violence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Few studies have explored the direct impact of behavioral parent training programs on child maltreatment behaviors among marginalized, at-risk fathers. This feasibility study examined SafeCare® Dad to Kids (Dad2K), an augmented version of the evidence-based child maltreatment prevention program SafeCare, to determine the acceptability and initial efficacy of the program for improving father parenting skills and reducing maltreatment risk. Ninety-nine fathers were enrolled in the study and randomized to the SafeCare Dad2K Intervention (n = 51) or comparison (n = 48). Intervention fathers participated in 6 home visiting sessions and comparison fathers received parenting materials via mail. All fathers participating in the study completed a baseline and 8-week assessment (post-intervention) of maltreatment behaviors. In addition, intervention fathers completed feasibility and parenting skill measures. A significant main effect emerged indicating decreases for both groups in psychologically aggressive behaviors. No significant group by time findings emerged for child maltreatment behaviors. Father intervention completers endorsed high satisfaction ratings for the program and demonstrated significant improvements in targeted father-child interaction skills. Based on the high rates of acceptability and initial improvement in positive parenting skills, findings demonstrate the feasibility for involving at-risk fathers in behavioral parent training programs targeting child maltreatment prevention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Including biological fathers, foster or adoptive father, stepfathers, male caregivers, and other father figures.

References

  • Ayer, K., Kohl, P., Malsberger, R., & Burgette, L. (2016). The impact of fathers on maltreated youths’ mental health. Children and Services Review, 63, 16–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ayer, L., Woldetsadik, M. A., Malsberger, R., Burgette, L. F., & Kohl, P. L. (2016). Who are the men caring for maltreated youth? Male primary caregivers in the child welfare system. Child Maltreatment, 21(4), 278–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellamy, J. L. (2009). A national study of male involvement among families in contact with the child welfare system. Child Maltreatment, 14(3), 255–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belsky, J., & de Haan, M. (2011). Parenting and children’s brain development: the end of the beginning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(4), 409–428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-David, V., Jonson-Reid, M., Drake, B., & Kohl, P. L. (2015). The association between childhood maltreatment experiences and the onset of maltreatment perpetration in young adulthood controlling for proximal and distal risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 46, 132–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigelow, K. M., & Lutzker, J. R. (1998). Using video to teach planned activities to parents reported for child abuse. Child and Family Behavior Therapy, 20, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, D. J., Kreuter, M., Spring, B., Cofta-Woerpel, L., Linnan, L., Weiner, D., Bakken, S., Kaplan, C. P., Squiers, L., Fabrizio, C., & Fernandez, M. (2009). How we design feasibility studies. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(5), 452–457.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, C. (2011). Talking with mom. Germantown: National Fatherhood Initiative.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bugental, D. B., Ellerson, P. C., Lin, E. K., Rainey, B., Kokotovic, A., & O’Hara, N. (2002). A cognitive approach to child abuse prevention. Journal of Family Psychology, 16(3), 243–258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carta, J. J., Lefever, J. B., Bigelow, K., Borkowski, J., & Warren, S. F. (2013). Randomized trial of a cellular phone-enhanced home visitation parenting intervention. Pediatrics, 132, S167–S173.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chaffin, M., Funderburk, B., Bard, D., Valle, L. A., & Gurwitch, R. (2011). A combined motivation and parent-child interaction therapy package reduces child welfare recidivism in a randomized dismantling field trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(1), 84–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaffin, M., Hecht, D., Bard, D., Silovsky, J. F., & Beasley, W. H. (2012). A statewide trial of the SafeCare home-based services model with parents in Child Protective Services. Pediatrics, 129(3), 509–515.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clement, M. E., Berube, A., & Chamberland, C. (2016). Prevalence and risk factors of child neglect in the general population. Public Health, 138, 86–92.

  • Commission to Eliminate Child Abuse and Neglect Fatalities (2016). Within our reach: A national strategy to eliminate child abuse and neglect fatalities. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/resource/cecanf-final-report.

  • Coyle, D., Doherty, G., Matthews, M., & Sharry, J. (2007). Computers in talk-based mental health interventions. Interacting with Computers, 19(4), 545–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damashek, A., Doughty, D., Ware, L., & Silovsky, J. (2011). Predictors of client engagement and attrition in home-based child maltreatment prevention services. Child Maltreatment, 16(1), 9–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duggan, A., Fuddy, L., Burrell, L., Higman, S. M., McFarlane, E., Windham, A., & Sia, C. (2004). Randomized trial of a statewide home visiting program to prevent child abuse: impact in reducing parental risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(6), 623–643.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Euser, S., Alink, L. R., Stoltenborgh, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2015). A gloomy picture: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials reveals disappointing effectiveness of programs aiming at preventing child maltreatment. BMC Public Health, 15(1), 1068.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fabiano, G. A., Pelham, W. E., Cunningham, C. E., Yu, J., Gangloff, B., Buck, M., Linke, S., Gormley, M., & Gera, S. (2012). A wait-list comparison led trial of behavioral parent training for fathers of children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 41(3), 337–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fagan, J., & Lee, Y. (2010). Perceptions and satisfaction with father involvement and adolescent mothers’ postpartum depressive symptoms. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 39(9), 1109–1121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fatherhood Institute. (2013). Fatherhood institute research summary: Fathers’ impact on their children’s learning and achievement. London: Fatherhood Institute. Retrieved from http://www.fatherhoodinstitute.org/2013/fatherhood-institute-research-summary-fathers-and-their-childrens-education/.

  • Fletcher, R., Freeman, E., & Matthey, S. (2011). The impact of behavioural parent training on fathers’ parenting: a meta-analysis of the triple P – positive parenting program. Fathering, 9, 291–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fortson, B. L., Klevens, J., Merrick, M. T., Gilbert, L. K., & Alexander, S. P. (2016). Preventing child abuse and neglect: A technical package for policy, norm, and programmatic activities. Atlanta: National Center for Injury Prevention and Comparison, Centers for Disease Comparison and Prevention.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gee, C. B., & Rhodes, J. E. (2003). Adolescent mothers’ relationship with their children’s biological fathers: social support, social strain, and relationship continuity. Journal of Family Psychology, 17(3), 370–383.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gershater-Molko, R. M., Lutzker, J. R., & Wesch, D. (2002). Using recidivism data to evaluate project SafeCare: teaching bonding, safety, and health care skills to parents. Child Maltreatment, 7(3), 277–285.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453–469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guastaferro, K. M., Lutzker, J. R., Graham, M. L., Shanley, J. R., & Whitaker, D. J. (2012). SafeCare®: historical perspective and dynamic development of an evidence-based scaled-up model for the prevention of child maltreatment. Psychosocial Intervention, 21(2), 171–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guastaferro, K., Miller, K., Lutzker, J. R., Whitaker, D. J., Chatham, J. S., Lai, B. S., & Kemner, A. (2017). Implementing a braided home-based parent-support curriculum: lessons learned. Psychosocial Intervention. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psi.2017.03.001.

  • Guterman, K. (2015). Unintended pregnancy as a predictor of child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 160–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guterman, N. B., & Lee, Y. (2005). The role of fathers in risk for physical child abuse and neglect: possible pathways and unanswered questions. Child maltreatment, 10(2), 136–149.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holcomb, P., Edin, K., Max, J., Young, A., D’ Angelo, A., Friend, D., Clary, E., & Johnson, W. (2015). In their own voices: The hopes and struggles of responsible fatherhood program participants in the Parents and Children Together Evaluation. OPRE Report Number 2015-67. Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland, G. O., & Holden, G. W. (2016). Changing orientations to corporal punishment: a randomized, control trial of the efficacy of a motivational approach to psycho-education. Psychology of Violence, 6(2), 233–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Homem, T. C., Gaspar, M. F., Seabra-Santos, M. J., Canavarro, M. C., & Azevedo, A. (2014). A pilot study with the incredible years parenting training: does it work for fathers of preschoolers with oppositional behavior symptoms? Fathering, 12(3), 262–282.

    Google Scholar 

  • IBM Corp. (Released 2012). IBM SPSS statistics for windows, version 21.0. Armonk: IBM Corp.

  • Isaacs, L., Webb, A., Jerome, S., & Fabiano, G. A. (2015). Inclusion and engagement of fathers in behavioral parent training for ADHD: an update and recommendations. The ADHD Report, 23(8), 1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, J., & Mosher, W. D. (2013). Fathers’ involvement with their children: United States, 2006–2010. National Health Statistics Reports, 71, 1–21. Centers for Disease Comparison and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalil, A., Ziol-Guest, K., & Coley, R. (2005). Perceptions of father involvement patterns in teenage-mother families: predictors and links to mothers’ psychological adjustment. Family Relations, 54(2), 197–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelley, M. L., Lawrence, H. R., Milletich, R. R., Hollis, B. F., & Henson, J. M. (2015). Modeling risk for child abuse and harsh parenting in families with depressed and substance-abusing parents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 4, 42–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, R., Hickman, N., Gali, K., Orozco, N., & Prochaska, J. J. (2014). Maximizing retention with high risk participants in a clinical trial. American Journal of Health Promotion, 28(4), 268–274.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohl, P. L., & Seay, K. D. (2015). Engaging African American fathers in behavioral parent training: to adapt or not adapt. Best Practices in Mental Health, 11(1), 54–68.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kotchick, B. A., Shaffer, A., Miller, K. S., & Forehand, R. (2001). Adolescent sexual risk behavior: a multi-system perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 21, 493–519.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (Ed.) (1981). The role of the father in child development. New York: Wiley Lamb.

  • Lamb, M. E., & Lewis, C. (2013). Father-child relationships. In N. Cabrera & C. S. Tamis-Lemonda (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 119–134). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lansford, J. E., Godwin, J., Tirado Uribe, L. M., Zelli, A., Al-Hassan, S. M., Bacchini, D., Bombi, M. H., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater-Deckard, K., Di Gunta, L., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., Pastorelli, C., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Tapanya, S., & Pena Alampay, L. (2015). Individual, family, and culture level contributions to child physical abuse and neglect: a longitudinal study in nine countries. Developmental Psychopathology, 27(4 Pt 2), 1417–1428.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. J., Bellamy, J. L., & Guterman, N. B. (2009). Fathers, physical child abuse, and neglect. Child Maltreatment, 14(3), 227–231.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. J., Kim, J., Taylor, C. A., & Perron, B. E. (2011). Profiles of disciplinary behaviors among biological fathers. Child Maltreatment, 16(1), 51–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. J., Taylor, C. A., Altschul, I., & Rice, J. C. (2013). Parental spanking and subsequent risk for child aggression in father-involved families of young children. Child Youth Services Review, 35(9), 1476–1485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, S. J., Taylor, C. A., & Bellamy, J. L. (2012). Paternal depression and risk for child neglect in father-involved families of young children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36, 461–469.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lutzker, J. R., & Bigelow, K. M. (2002). Reducing child maltreatment: A guidebook for parent services. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutzker, J. R., Megson, D. A., Webb, M. E., & Dachman, R. S. (1985). Validating and training adult-child interaction skills to professionals and to parents indicated for child abuse and neglect. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 2, 91–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lutzker, J. R., & Rice, J. M. (1987). Using recidivism data to evaluate project 12-ways: an ecobehavioral approach to the treatment and prevention of child abuse and neglect. Journal of Family Violence, 2(4), 283–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. A., & Rollnick, S. (1991). Motivational interviewing: Preparing people to change addictive behavior. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moher, D., Hopewell, S., Schulz, K. F., Montori, V., Gøtzsche, P. C., Devereaux, P. J., Elbourne, D., Egger, M., & Altman, D. G. (2010). CONSORT 2010 explanation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 63(8), e1–e37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ondersma, S. J., Chase, S. K., Svikis, D. S., & Schuster, C. R. (2005). Computer-based brief motivational intervention for perinatal drug use. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 28(4), 305–312.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osborne, C., Dillon, D., Craver, J. W., & Hovey, I. (2016). Making good on fatherhood: A review of the fatherhood research. Child & Family Research Partnership. University of Texas at Austin.

  • Panter-Brick, C., Burgess, A., Eggerman, M., McAllister, F., Pruett, K., & Leckman, J. F. (2014). Practitioner review: engaging fathers – recommendations for a game change in parenting interventions based on a systematic review of the global evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(11), 1187–1212.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pleck, J. H. (2012). Integrating father involvement in parenting research. Parenting: Science & Practice, 12(2/3), 243–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Polcari, A., Rabi, K., Bolger, E., & Teicher, M. H. (2014). Parental verbal affection and verbal aggression in childhood differentially influence psychiatric symptoms and wellbeing in young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(1), 91–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prinz, R. J., Sanders, M. R., Shapiro, C. J., Whitaker, D. J., & Lutzker, J. R. (2009). Population-based prevention of child maltreatment: the U.S. Triple P system population trial. Prevention Science: the Official Journal of the Society for Prevention Research, 10(1), 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scholer, S. J., Hudnut-Beumier, J., & Dietrich, M. S. (2010). A brief primary care intervention helps parents develop plans to discipline. Pediatrics, 125(2), e242-e249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scourfield, J. (2014). Improving work with fathers to prevent child maltreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 974–981.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sedlak, A., McPherson, K., & Das, B. (2010). Supplementary analyses of race differences in child maltreatment rates in the NIS-4. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Self-Brown, S., McFry, E., Montesanti, A., Edwards-Gaura, A., Lutzker, J., Shanley, J., & Whitaker, D. (2014). SafeCare: A prevention and intervention program for child neglect and physical abuse. In R. Reece, R. Hanson & J. Sargent (Eds.), Treatment of child abuse: Common ground for mental health, medical and legal practitioners, 2nd edition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Self-Brown, S., Cowart-Osborne, M., Baker, E., Thomas, A., Boyd, C., Chege, E., Jackson, M., Meister, E., & Lutzker, J. (2015). Dad2K: an adaptation of SafeCare to enhance positive parenting skills with at-risk fathers. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 37, 138–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Self-Brown, S., Osborne, M., Rostad, W., & Feil, E. (2017). Impact of a technology-mediated implementation approach to SafeCare on provider burden and effort. Child Maltreatment, In press.

  • Shaffer, A., Kotchick, B. A., Dorsey, S., & Forehand, R. (2001). The past, present, and future of behavioral parent training: interventions for child and adolescent problem behavior. The Behavior Analyst Today, 2, 91–105.

  • Smith, T. K., Duggan, A., Bair-Merritt, M. H., & Cox, G. (2012). Systematic review of fathers’ involvement in programmes for the primary prevention of child maltreatment. Child Abuse Review, 21, 237–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snarr, J. D., Slep, A. M. S., & Grande, V. P. (2009). Validation of a new self-report measure of parental attributes. Psychological Assessment, 21(3), 390–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stahlschmidt, M. J., Threlfall, J., Seay, K. D., Lewis, E. M., & Kohl, P. L. (2013). Recruiting fathers to parenting programs: advice from dads and fatherhood program providers. Child and Youth Services Review, 35(10), 1734–1741.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stover, C. S., Easton, C., & McMahon, T. J. (2013). Parenting of men with co-occurring intimate partner violence and substance abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(11), 2290–2314.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D. W., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the parent-child conflict tactics scales: development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22(4), 249–270.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., & Henry, K. L. (2013). Intergenerational continuity in maltreatment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(4), 555–569.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Thornberry, T. P., Knight, K. E., & Lovegrove, P. J. (2012). Does maltreatment beget maltreatment? A systematic review of the intergenerational literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 13(3), 135–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Threlfall, J. M., & Kohl, P. L. (2015). Addressing child support in fatherhood programs: perspective of fathers and service providers. Family Relations, 64, 291–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Threlfall, J. M., Seay, K. D., & Kohl, P. L. (2013). The parenting role of African American fathers in the context of urban poverty. Journal of Children and Poverty, 19(1), 45–61.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Trends, C. (2002). Family structure. Washington, DC: Child Trends.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trends, C. (2013). World family map 2014: Mapping family change and child well-being outcomes. Bethesda: Child Trends.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. (2017). Child maltreatment 2015. Available from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/research-data-technology/statistics-research/child-maltreatment.

  • Xing, X., & Wang, M. (2017). Gender differences in the moderating effects of parental warmth and hostility on the association between corporal punishment and child externalizing behaviors in China. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(3), 928–938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This project was funded by the National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities (1P20 MD004806-01).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shannon Self-Brown.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Self-Brown, S., Osborne, M.C., Lai, B.S. et al. Initial Findings from a Feasibility Trial Examining the SafeCare Dad to Kids Program with Marginalized Fathers. J Fam Viol 32, 751–766 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-017-9940-5

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-017-9940-5

Keywords

Navigation