Abstract
The current investigation examined if interparental conflict (IPC), including psychological and physical violence, moderated the relationship between parental depressive symptoms and youth internalizing and externalizing problems, respectively, in a sample of youth with a parent with a history of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). One hundred and eighty families with a parent with a history of MDD (M age = 41.96; 88.9 % mothers) and a youth in the target age range of 9-to-15 years (49.4 % females; M age = 11.46) participated. Findings indicated that IPC exacerbated the effect of parental depressive symptoms on internalizing, but not externalizing, problems for both males and females. Findings suggest that, in families with a parent who has a history of depression, parental depressive symptoms and IPC together have important implications for youth internalizing problems. Targeting improvement for both parent depressive symptoms and interparental conflict may directly lead to decreases in youth internalizing symptoms in the context of parental depression.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for ASEBA schoolage forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15(3), 355–370. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.3.355.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R., & Ranieri, W. F. (1996). Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories-IA and-II in psychiatric outpatients. Journal of Personality Assessment, 67(3), 588–597. doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa6703_13.
Belsher, G., & Costello, C. G. (1988). Relapse after recovery from unipolar depression: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 104(1), 84–96. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.104.1.84.
Cicchetti, D. (2006). Developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (Second ed., pp. 1–23). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8(04), 597–600.
Cole, D. A., & Rehm, L. P. (1986). Family interaction patterns and childhood depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 14(2), 297–314.
Compas, B. E., Forehand, R., Keller, G., Champion, J. E., Rakow, A., Reeslund, K. L., et al. (2009). Randomized controlled trial of a family cognitive-behavioral preventive intervention for children of depressed parents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(6), 1007–1020. doi:10.1037/a0016930.
Compas, B. E., Champion, J. E., Forehand, R., Cole, D. A., Reeslund, K. L., & Roberts, L. (2010). Coping and parenting: Mediators of 12-month outcomes of a family group cognitive-behavioral preventive intervention with families of depressed parents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 623–634. doi:10.1037/a0020459.
Compas, B. E., Forehand, R., Thigpen, J. C., Keller, G., Hardcastle, E. J., Cole, D. A., et al. (2011). Family group cognitive–behavioral preventive intervention for families of depressed parents: 18- and 24-month outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(4), 488–499. doi:10.1037/a0024254.
Compas, B. E., Forehand, R., Thigpen, J., Hardcastle, E., Garai, E., & Sterba, S. (2015). Efficacy and moderators of a family cognitive behavioral preventive intervention for children of depressed parents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 83(3), 541.
Crick, N. R., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2003). The development of psychopathology in females and males: Current progress and future challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 15(3), 719–742. doi:10.1017/S095457940300035X.
Cui, M., & Conger, R. D. (2008). Parenting behavior as mediator and moderator of the association between marital problems and adolescent maladjustment. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 18(2), 261–284. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2008.00560.x.
Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., & Campbell, S. B. (2000). What is developmental psychopathology? In Developmental psychopathology and family process: Research, theory, and clinical implications (pp. 17–34). New York: Guilford.
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 116(3), 387–411. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.387.
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (2006). Interparental discord, family process, and developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., pp. 86–128). New York: Wiley & Sons.
Davies, P. T., & Martin, M. (2014). Children’s coping and adjustment in high-conflict homes: The reformulation of emotional security theory. Child Development Perspectives, 8(4), 242–249. doi:10.1111/cdep.12094.
Davis, B., Sheeber, L., Hops, H., & Tildesley, E. (2000). Adolescent responses to depressive parental behaviors in problem-solving interactions: Implications for depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(5), 451–465.
Ebesutani, C., Bernstein, A., Martinez, J. I., Chorpita, B. F., & Weisz, J. R. (2011). The Youth Self-Report: Applicability and validity across younger and older youths. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 40(2), 338–346. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.546041.
Emery, R. E., Matthews, S. G., & Kitzmann, K. M. (1994). Child custody mediation and litigation: Parents’ satisfaction and functioning one year after settlement. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(1), 124–129. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.62.1.124.
Fear, J. M., Champion, J. E., Reeslund, K. L., Forehand, R., Colletti, C., Roberts, L., et al. (2009). Parental depression and interparental conflict: Children and adolescents’ self-blame and coping responses. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(5), 762–766. doi:10.1037/a0016381.
Fendrich, M., Warner, V., & Weissman, M. M. (1990). Family risk factors, parental depression, and psychopathology in offspring. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 40–50. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.1.40.
First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). Structured clinical interview for DSM–IV–TR axis I disorders, research version, patient edition (SCID-I/P). New York: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.
Fosco, G. M., & Feinberg, M. E. (2015). Cascading effects of interparental conflict in adolescence: Linking treat appraisals, self-efficacy, and adjustment. Development and Psychopathology, 27(1), 239–252.
Fosco, G. M., & Grych, J. H. (2010). Adolescent triangulation into parental conflicts: Longitudinal implications for appraisals and adolescent-parent relations. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(2), 254–266. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00697.x.
Fosco, G. M., DeBoard, R. L., & Grych, J. H. (2007). Making sense of family violence: Implications of children's appraisals of interparental aggression for their short-and long-term functioning. European Psychologist, 12(1), 6–16. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.12.1.6.
Foster, C. E., Webster, M. C., Weissman, M. M., Pilowsky, D. J., Wickramarante, P. J., Talati, A., et al. (2008). Remission of maternal depression: Relations to family functioning and youth internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 714–724.
Franck, K. L., & Buehler, C. (2007). A family process model of marital hostility, parental depressive affect, and early adolescent problem behavior: The roles of triangulation and parental warmth. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(4), 614–625. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.614.
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106(3), 458–490. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.458.
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(1), 1–27. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1.
Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: A dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113(1), 101.
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin, 108(2), 267. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.2.267.
Grych, J. H., Seid, M., & Fincham, F. D. (1992). Assessing marital conflict from the child’s perspective: The Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale. Child Development, 63(3), 558–572. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1992.tb01646.x.
Hammen, C. (2009). Adolescent depression, stressful interpersonal contexts, and risk for recurrence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(4), 200–204. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01636.x.
Hammen, C., Brennan, P. A., & Shih, J. H. (2004). Family discord and stress predictors of depression and other disorders in adolescent children of depressed and nondepressed women. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(8), 994–1002. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000127588.57468.f6.
Harvey, E. A., Metcalfe, L. A., Herbert, S. D., & Fanton, J. H. (2011). The role of family experiences and ADHD in the early development of oppositional defiant disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79(6), 784.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118.
Kane, P., & Garber, J. (2009). Parental depression and child externalizing and internalizing symptoms: Unique effects of fathers’ symptoms and perceived conflict as a mediator. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18(4), 465–472.
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children—Present and lifetime version (K-SADSPL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021.
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O'Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592. doi:10.1016/S02727358(98)00100-7NRC/IOM.
McLeod, B. D., Weisz, J. R., & Wood, J. J. (2007a). Examining the association between parenting and childhood depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(8), 986–1003.
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007b). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27(2), 155–172.
Muthén, B. O. (1989). Latent variable modeling in heterogeneous populations. Psychometrika, 54(4), 557–585. doi:10.1007/BF02296397.
Muthén, L. ., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.) (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén
National Research Council, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Children, Youth, and Families, Committee on Depression, Parenting Practices, and the Healthy Development of Children, and Institute of Medicine. (2009). Depression in parents, parenting, and children: Opportunities to improve identification, treatment, and prevention. Washington, DC: National Academies Press
Nigg, J. T., Nikolas, M., Miller, T., Alexandra, S., Klump, K. L., & von Eye, A. (2009). Factor structure of the Children’s Perception of Interparental Conflict Scale for studies of youths with externalizing behavior problems. Psychological Assessment, 21(3), 450–456. doi:10.1037/a0016564.
Papp, L. M. (2012). Longitudinal associations between parental and children’s depressive symptoms in the context of interparental relationship functioning. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(2), 199–207. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9463-2.
Phares, V., Fields, S., Kamboukos, D., & Lopez, E. (2005). Still looking for poppa. American Psychologist, 60(7), 735–736. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.60.7.735.
Rapee, R. M. (2012). Family factors in the development and management of anxiety disorders. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 15(1), 69–80.
Radke-Yarrow, M., Nottelmann, E., Martinez, P., Fox, M. B., & Belmont, B. (1992). Young children of affectively ill parents: a longitudinal study of psychosocial development. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(1), 68–77.
Rice, F., Harold, G. T., & Thapar, A. (2002). Assessing the effects of age, sex and shared environment on the genetic aetiology of depression in childhood and adolescence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(8), 1039–1051.
Rhoades, K. A. (2008). Children’s responses to interparental conflict: A meta-analysis of their associations with child adjustment. Child Development, 79(6), 1942–1956. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01235.x.
Schoppe-Sullivan, S. J., Schermerhorn, A. C., & Cummings, E. M. (2007). Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: Evaluation of the parenting process model. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69(5), 1118–1134. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2007.00436.x.
Watson, K. H., Potts, J., Hardcastle, E., Forehand, R., & Compas, B. E. (2012). Internalizing and externalizing symptoms in sons and daughters or mothers with a history of depression. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21, 657–666. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9518-4.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Grants
This research was supported by grants R01MH069940 and R01MH069928.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Breslend, N.L., Parent, J., Forehand, R. et al. Parental Depressive Symptoms and Youth Internalizing and Externalizing Problems: The Moderating Role of Interparental Conflict. J Fam Viol 31, 823–831 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9817-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-9817-z