Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate intimate partner violence (IPV) involving children and the parenting role (e.g., preventing an intimate partner from providing parental care or threatening to take one’s children away). Specifically, the study examined whether this form of IPV affects maternal functioning above and beyond other IPV experiences. Participants included a community sample of 120 primarily low-income, single women, diverse in age, education, and ethnicity, who were interviewed 1 year after giving birth, as part of a longitudinal study. IPV involving children and the parenting role was significantly associated with other experiences of IPV, especially general psychological IPV. Multiple regression analyses revealed that this form of IPV significantly affected mothers’ personal, relational, and parental functioning. Results suggest that it is important to assess for IPV involving children and the parenting role when working with mothers. More research on this unique type of IPV is needed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index: Professional manual (3rd ed., ). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Ahlfs-Dunn, S. M., & Huth-Bocks, A. C. (2012). Psychological violence against women by intimate partners: The use of children to victimize mothers. In H. R. Cunningham, & W. F. Berry (Eds.), Handbook on the psychology of violence (pp. 123–144). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Alhabib, S., Nur, U., & Jones, R. (2010). Domestic violence against women: Systematic review of prevalence studies. Journal of Family Violence, 25, 369–382. doi:10.1007/s10896-009-9298-4.
Arnau, R. C., Meagher, M. W., Norris, M. P., & Bramson, R. (2001). Psychometric evaluation of the beck depression inventory-II with primary care medical patients. Health Psychology, 20, 112–119. doi:10.1037//0278-6133.20.2.112.
Bancroft, L., Silverman, J. G., & Ritchie, D. (2012). Shock waves: The batterer’s impact on the home. In Author, The batterer as parent: Addressing the impact of domestic violence on family dynamics (2nd ed. pp. 69–105). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Bargai, N., Ben-Shakhar, G., & Shalev, A. Y. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and depression in battered women: The mediating role of learned helplessness. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 267–275. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9078-y.
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Beeble, M. L., Bybee, D., & Sullivan, C. M. (2007). Abusive men’s use of children to control their partners and ex-partners. European Psychologist, 12, 54–61. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.12.1.54.
Belsky, J., Jaffee, S. R., Sligo, J., Woodward, L., & Silva, P. A. (2005). Intergenerational transmission of warm-sensitive-stimulating parenting: A prospective study of mothers and fathers of 3 year-olds. Child Development, 76, 384–396. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00852.x.
Black, M. C., Basile, K. C., Breiding, M. J., Smith, S. G., Walters, M. L., Merrick, M. T., Chen, J., & Stevens, M. R. (2011). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Blanchard, E.B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T.C., & Forneris, C.A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 669–673. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2.
Bosch, L. A., & Curran, M. A. (2011). Identity style and relationship quality for pregnant cohabitating couples during the transition to parenthood. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 11, 47–63. doi:10.1080/15283488.2010.540738.
Braiker, H. B., & Kelley, H. H. (1979). Conflict in the development of close relationships. In R. Burgess, & T. Huston (Eds.), Social exchange and developing relationships (pp. 135–168). New York: Academic Press.
Buchanan, F., Power, C., & Verity, F. (2014). The effects of domestic violence on the formation of relationships between women and their babies: “I was too busy protecting my baby to attach.”. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 713–724. doi:10.1007/s10896-014-9630-5.
Buckley, H., Holt, S., & Whelan, S. (2007). Listen to me! Children’s experiences of domestic violence. Child Abuse Review, 16, 296–310. doi:10.1002/car.995.
Casanueva, C. E., & Martin, S. L. (2007). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and mothers’ child abuse potential. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 603–622. doi:10.1177/0886260506298836.
Charles, P., & Perreira, K. M. (2007). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and 1-year post-partum. Journal of Family Violence, 22, 609–619. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9112-0.
Cohen, L. R., Hien, D. A., & Batchelder, S. (2008). The impact of cumulative maternal trauma and diagnosis on parenting behavior. Child Maltreatment, 13, 27–38. doi:10.1177/1077559507310045.
Crnic, K. A., & Greenberg, M. A. (1990). Minor parenting stresses with young children. Child Development, 61, 1628–1637.
Daro, D. A., & Harding, K. A. (1999). Healthy families America: Using research to enhance practice. The Future of Children, 9, 152–176.
Derogatis, L. R. (1993). BSI, brief symptom inventory: Administration, scoring, and procedure manual (4th ed., ). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems.
Derogatis, L. R., & Lazarus, L. (1994). SCL-90-R, brief symptom inventory, and matching clinical rating scales. In M. E. Maruish (Ed.), The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcome assessment (pp. 217–248). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Devries, K. M., Kishor, S., Johnson, H., Stöckl, H., Bacchus, L. J., Garcia-Moreno, C., & Watts, C. (2010). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy: Analysis of prevalence data from 19 countries. Reproductive Health Matters, 18, 158–170. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)36533-5.
Dutton, M. A., & Goodman, L. A. (2005). Coercion in intimate partner violence: Toward a new conceptualization. Sex Roles, 52, 743–756. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-4196-6.
Dutton, M. A., Goodman, L., & Schmidt, R. J. (2005). Development and validation of a coercive control measure for intimate partner violence: Final technical report. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/214438.pdf
Edin, K. E., Dahlgren, L., Lalos, A., & Högberg, U. (2010). “Keeping up a front”: narratives about intimate partner violence, pregnancy, and antenatal care. Violence Against Women, 16, 189–206. doi:10.1177/1077801209355703.
Giordano, P. C., Soto, D. A., Manning, W. D., & Longmore, M. A. (2010). The characteristics of romantic relationships associated with teen dating violence. Social Science Research, 39, 863–874. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.03.009.
Haskett, M. E., Ahern, L. S., Ward, C. S., & Allaire, J. C. (2006). Factor structure and validity of the parenting stress index–short form. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 302–312. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_14.
Hayes, B. E. (2012). Abusive men’s indirect control of their partner during the process of separation. Journal of Family Violence, 27, 333–344. doi:10.1007/s10896-012-9428-2.
Hellemans, S., Loeys, T., Dewitte, M., De Smet, O., & Buysse, A. (2015). Prevalence of intimate partner violence victimization and victims’ relational and sexual well-being. Journal of Family Violence, 30, 685–698. doi:10.1007/s10896-015-9712-z.
Holden, G. W., Stein, J. D., Ritchie, K. L., Harris, S. D., & Jouriles, E. N. (1998). Parenting behaviors and beliefs of battered women. In G. W. Holden, R. Geffner, & E. N. Jouriles (Eds.), Children exposed to marital violence: Theory, research, and applied issues (pp. 289–334). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Holland, A. S., & McElwain, N. L. (2013). Maternal and paternal perceptions of coparenting as a link between marital quality and the parent-toddler relationship. Journal of Family Psychology, 27, 117–126. doi:10.1037/a0031427.
Huth-Bocks, A. C., Krause, K., Ahlfs-Dunn, S., Gallagher, E., & Scott, S. (2013). Relational trauma and post-traumatic stress symptoms among pregnant women. Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 41, 277–301.
Irwin, L. G., Thorne, S., & Varcoe, C. (2002). Strength in adversity: Motherhood for women who have been battered. The Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 34, 47–57.
Johnson, M. P. (2006). Conflict and control: Gender symmetry and asymmetry in domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 12, 1003–1018. doi:10.1177/1077801206293328.
Karmaliani, R., Asad, N., Bann, C. M., Moss, N., Mcclure, E. M., Pasha, O., et al. (2009). Prevalence of anxiety, depression, and associated factors among pregnant women of hyderbad, Pakistan. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 55, 414–424. doi:10.1177/0020764008094645.
Kelleher, K. J., Hazen, A. L., Coben, J. H., Wang, Y., McGeehan, J., Kohl, P. L., & Gardner, W. P. (2008). Self-reported disciplinary practices among women in the child welfare system: Association with domestic violence victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 811–818. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.12.004.
Kelly, U. A. (2009). “I’m a mother first”: the influence of mothering in the decision-making processes of battered immigrant Latino women. Research in Nursing & Health, 32, 286–297. doi:10.1002/nur.20327.
Krishnakumar, A., & Buehler, C. (2000). Interparental conflict and parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Family Relations, 49, 25–44.
Lapierre, S. (2010). Striving to be ‘good’ mothers: Abused women’s experiences of mothering. Child Abuse Review, 19, 342–357. doi:10.1002/car.1113.
Levendosky, A. A., Leahy, K. L., Bogat, G. A., Davidson, W. S., & von Eye, A. (2006). Domestic violence, maternal parenting, maternal mental health, and infant externalizing behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 544–552. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.544.
Lieberman, A. F., & Van Horn, P. (2005). Don't hit my mommy: A manual for child-parent psychotherapy. Washington, D.C.: Zero to Three Press.
Lieberman, A. F., & Van Horn, P. (2008). Psychotherapy with infants and young children: Repairing the effects of stress and trauma on early attachment. New York: Guilford Press.
Ludermir, A. B., Lewis, G., Valongueiro, S. A., Barreto do Araujo, T. V., & Araya, R. (2010). Violence against women by their intimate partner during pregnancy and postnatal depression: A prospective cohort study. Lancet, 367, 903–910. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60887-2.
Martin, S. L., Li, Y., Casanueva, C., Harris-Britt, A., Kupper, L. L., & Cloutier, S. (2006). Intimate partner violence and women’s depression before and during pregnancy. Violence Against Women, 12, 221–239. doi:10.1177/1077801205285106.
McGee, C. (1997). Children’s experiences of domestic violence. Child and Family Social Work, 2, 13–23. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2206.1997.00037.x.
Mechanic, M. B., Weaver, T. L., & Resick, P. A. (2008). Mental health consequences of intimate partner violence: A multidimensional assessment of four different forms of abuse. Violence Against Women, 14, 634–654. doi:10.1177/1077801208319283.
Moe, A. M. (2009). Battered women, children, and the end of abusive relationships. Journal of Women and Social Work, 24, 244–256. doi:10.1177/0886109909337374.
Moore, A. M., Frohwirth, L., & Miller, E. (2010). Male reproductive control of women who have experienced intimate partner violence in the United States. Social Science & Medicine, 70, 1737–1744. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.02.009.
Mullender, A., Hague, G., Imam, U., Kelly, L., Malos, E., & Regan, L. (2002). Children’s perspectives on domestic violence. London: Sage Publications.
O’Leary, K. D. (1999). Psychological abuse: A variable deserving critical attention in domestic violence. Violence and Victims, 14, 3–23.
Olds, D. L., Hill, P. L., O’Brien, R., Racine, D., & Moritz, P. (2003). Taking preventive intervention to scale: The nurse-family partnership. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 10, 278–290. doi:10.1016/S1077-7229(03)80046-9.
Prinz, U., Nutzinger, D. O., Schulz, H., Petermann, F., Braukhaus, C., & Andreas, S. (2013). Comparative psychometric analyses of the SCL-90-R and its short versions in patients with affective disorders. BMC Psychiatry, 13, 104–112. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-13-104.
Radford, L., & Hester, M. (2006). Mothering through domestic violence. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Reitman, D., Currier, R. O., & Stickle, T. R. (2002). A critical evaluation of the parenting stress index–short form (PSI-SF) in a head start population. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 384–392. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3103_10.
Ritchie, K. L., & Holden, G. W. (1998). Parenting stress in low income battered and community women: Effects on parenting behavior. Early Education and Development, 9, 97–112. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed0901_5.
Rivara, F. P., Anderson, M. L., Fishman, P., Reid, R. J., Bonomi, A. E., Carrell, D., & Thompson, R. S. (2009). Age, period, and cohort effects on intimate partner violence. Violence and Victims, 24, 627–638. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.24.5.627.
Rivera, E. A., Zeoli, A. M., & Sullivan, C. M. (2012). Abused mothers’ safety concerns and court mediators’ custody recommendations. Journal of Family Violence, 27, 321–332. doi:10.1007/s10896-012-9426-4.
Rodriguez, M. A., Valentine, J., Ahmed, S. R., Eisenman, D. P., Sumner, L. A., Heilemann, M. V., & Liu, H. (2010). Intimate partner violence and maternal depression during the perinatal period: A longitudinal investigation of Latinas. Violence Against Women, 16, 543–559. doi:10.1177/1077801210366959.
Rosen, D., Seng, J. S., Tolman, R. M., & Mallinger, G. (2007). Intimate partner violence, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder as additional predictors of low birth weight infants among low-income mothers. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 22, 1305–1314. doi:10.1177/0886260507304551.
Ruggiero, K. J., Del Ben, K., Scotti, J. R., & Rabalais, A. E. (2003). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist-civilian version. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 495–502. doi:10.1023/A:1025714729117.
Shea, E., & Tronick, E. Z. (1988). The maternal self-report inventory: A research and clinical instrument for assessing maternal self-esteem. In H. E. Fitzgerald (Ed.), Theory and research in behavioral pediatrics (vol. 4, pp. 101–139). New York: Plenum Press.
Shortt, J. W., Capaldi, D. M., Kim, H. K., & Laurent, H. K. (2010). The effects of intimate partner violence on relationship satisfaction over time for young at-risk couples: The moderating role of observed negative and positive affect. Partner Abuse, 1(2), 131–152. doi: 10.1891/1946–6560.1.2.131
Stampfel, C. C., Chapman, D. A., & Alvarez, A. A. (2010). Intimate partner violence and posttraumatic stress disorder among high-risk women: Does pregnancy matter? Violence Against Women, 16, 426–443. doi:10.1177/1077801210364047.
Stark, E. (2007). Coercive control: The entrapment of women in personal life. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stern, D. (1995). The motherhood constellation. In Author, The motherhood constellation: A unified view of parent-infant psychotherapy (pp. 171–190). New York: Basic Books.
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., & Warren, W. L. (2003). The conflict tactics scales handbook. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
Taillieu, T. L., & Brownridge, D. A. (2009). Violence against pregnant women: Prevalence, patterns, risk factors, theories, and directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 14–35. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.07.013.
Thiara, R. K. (2010). Continuing control: Child contact and post-separation violence. In R. K. Thiara, & A. K. Gill (Eds.), Violence against women in south Asian communities: Issues for policy and practice (pp. 156–181). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Tolman, R. M. (1989). The development of a measure of psychological maltreatment of women by their male partners. Violence and Victims, 4, 159–177.
Tubbs, C. Y., & Williams, O. J. (2007). Shared parenting after abuse. In J. L. Edleson, & O. J. Williams (Eds.), Parenting by men who batter: New directions for assessment and intervention (pp. 19–44). New York: Oxford University Press.
Walters, M. L., Chen, J., & Breiding, M. J. (2013). The national intimate partner and sexual violence survey (NISVS): 2010 findings on victimization by sexual orientation. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Walton-Moss, B. J., Manganello, J., Frye, V., & Campbell, J. C. (2005). Risk factors for intimate partner violence and associated injury among urban women. Journal of Community Health, 30, 377–389. doi:10.1007/s10900-005-5518-x.
Weathers, F., Litz, B., Herman, D., Huska, J., & Keane, T. (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. San Antonio, TX: Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.
Williams, S. L., & Frieze, I. H. (2005). Patterns of violent relationships, psychological distress, and marital satisfaction in a national sample of men and women. Sex Roles, 52, 771–784. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-4198-4.
Young, B. J., & Furman, W. (2013). Predicting commitment in young adults’ physically aggressive and sexually coercive dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 3245–3264. doi:10.1177/0886260513496897.
Zolotor, A. J., Theodore, A. D., Coyne-Beasley, T., & Runyan, D. K. (2007). Intimate partner violence and child maltreatment: Overlapping risk. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, 7, 305–321. doi:10.1093/brief-treatment/mhm021.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by grants from the American Psychoanalytic Association and from Eastern Michigan University to the second author. The authors would like to thank the Parenting Project research assistants for their invaluable help with data collection as well as thank the families who participated in the study.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ahlfs-Dunn, S.M., Huth-Bocks, A.C. Intimate Partner Violence Involving Children and the Parenting Role: Associations with Maternal Outcomes. J Fam Viol 31, 387–399 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9791-x
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9791-x