Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Patterns of Risk and Protective Factors in the Intergenerational Cycle of Maltreatment

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Journal of Family Violence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study investigates the continuation and discontinuation of the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment within the first 13 months of the child’s life. Differences in risk factors and parenting styles between families who initiate (Initiators), maintain (Maintainers) or break (Cycle Breakers) the intergenerational cycle of child maltreatment are explored in comparison to control families (Controls). One hundred and three Health Visitors were trained to assess risk factors and parenting styles of 4,351 families, at both 4–6 weeks and 3–5 months after birth. Maintainers, Initiators and Cycle Breakers had a significantly higher prevalence for the majority of risk factors and poor parenting styles than Controls. Protective factors of financial solvency and social support distinguished Cycle Breakers from Maintainers and Initiators. Therefore, it is the presence of protective factors that distinguish Cycle Breakers from families who were referred to Child Protection professionals in the first year after birth. A conceptual, hierarchical model that considers history of abuse, risk and protective factors, in turn, is proposed to assess families for the potential of child maltreatment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ammerman, R. T. (1990). Eitological models of child maltreatment: A behavioral perspective. Behavior Modification, 14, 230–254. doi:10.1177/01454455900143002.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Banyard, V. L. (1999). Child maltreatment and the mental health of low-income women. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 161–171. doi:10.1037/h0080418.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Becker-Lausen, E., & Mallon-Kraft, S. (1997). Pandemic outcomes: The intimacy variable. In G. K. Kantor, & J. S. Jasinski (Eds.), Out of the darkness: Current perspectives on family violence (pp. 49–57). Sage: Newbury Park, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briere, J., & Runtz, M. (1988). Multivariate correlates of childhood psychological and physical maltreatment among university women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 12, 331–341. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(88)90046-4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D. (1988). The nature of child abuse and neglect. In K. D. Browne, C. Davies, & P. Stratton (Eds.), Early prediction and prevention of child abuse (pp. 15–30). Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D. (1989). The health visitor’s role in screening for child abuse. Health Visitor, 62, 275–277.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D. (1995a). Preventing child maltreatment through community nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 21, 57–63. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2648.1995.21010057.x.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D. (1995b). The prediction of child maltreatment. In P. Redder, & C. Lucey (Eds.), The assessment of parenting pp. 118–135. Routledge: London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D., Douglas, J., Hamilton-Giacritsis, C., & Hegarty, J. (2006). A community health approach to the assessment of infants and their parents; the care programme. Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D., & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. (2005). The influence of violent media on children and adolescence: A public health approach. Lancet, 365, 702–710.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Browne K. D., Hamilton, C. & Hegarty, J. (1995). CARE Programme (Child Assessment Rating and Evaluation). Published for use by Southend Community Care Services NHS Trust.

  • Browne, K. D., Hamilton, C., Hegarty, J., & Blissett, J. (2000). Identifying need and protecting children through community nurse home visits. Representing Children, 13, 111–123.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D., & Herbert, M. (1997). Preventing family violence. Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D., & Saqi, S. (1987). Parent-child interaction in abusing families: Its possible causes and consequences. In P. Maher (Ed.), Child abuse: The educational perspective. Blackwell: Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, K. D., & Saqi, S. (1988). Approaches to screening for child abuse and neglect. In K. Browne, C. Davies, & P. Stratton (Eds.), Early prediction and prevention of child abuse pp. 57–85. Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan, A. (1996). Cycles of child maltreatment. Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cerezo, M. A., D'Ocon, A., & Dolz, L. (1996). Mother-child interactive patterns in abusive families versus nonabusive families: An observational study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20, 573–587. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00045-2.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coohey, C., & Braun, N. (1997). Toward an integrated framework for understanding child physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21, 1081–1094. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00067-7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cowan, P., & Cowan, C. P. (2001). A couple perspective on the transmission of attachment patterns. In C. Clulow (Ed.), Adult attachment and couple psychotherapy: The secure base in practice and research pp. 62–82. Brunner-Routledge: East Sussex.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crouch, J. L., Milner, J. S., & Thomsen, C. (2001). Childhood physical abuse, early social support and risk for maltreatment: current social support as a mediator of risk for child physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 93–107. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00230-1.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Department of Health (1995). The challenge of partnership in child protection: A practice guide. London: HMSO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Health (1998). Children and Young People on Child Protection Registers Year ending 31 March 1998, England (Personal Social Services and Local Authority Statistics). London: Government Statistical Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department for Education and Skills (2005). Statistics of Education: Referrals, assessments and children and young people on child protection registers; year ending 31 March 2004. National statistics for England. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office TSO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, L., Browne, K. D., & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. (2005). Risk factors of parents abused as children: A mediational analysis of the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment (Part I). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46, 47–57. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00339.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, L., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., & Browne, K. D. (2005). Attributions and behaviours of parents abused as children: A mediational analysis of the intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment (Part II). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46, 58–68. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00340.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Egeland, B. (1988). Breaking the cycle of abuse: Implications for prediction and intervention. In K. D. Browne, C. Davies, & P. Stratton (Eds.), Early prediction and prevention of child abuse (pp. 87–99). Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egeland, B. (1991). A longitudinal study of high risk families: Issues and findings. In R.H. Starr, & D.A. Wolfe (Eds.), The effects of child abuse and neglect: Issues and research. Guilford Press: London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egeland, B. (1993). A . history of abuse is a major risk factor for abusing the next generation. In R. J. Gelles, & D. R. Loseke (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 197–208). Sage: California.

  • Egeland, B., Bosquet, M., & Chung, A. L. (2002). Continuities and discontinuities in the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment: Implications for breaking the cycle of abuse. In K. D. Browne, H. Hanks, P. Stratton, & C. E. Hamilton (Eds.), Early prediction and prevention of child abuse: A handbook (pp. 217–232). Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Egeland, B., & Jacobvitz, D. (1984). Intergenerational continuity of parental abuse: Causes and consequences York, Me: Presented at Conference on Biosocial Perspectives in Abuse and Neglect (Published later as Egeland, Jacobvitz & Papatola, 1987).

  • Ertem, I. O., Leventhal, J. M., & Dobbs, S. (2000). Intergenerational continuity of child physical abuse: how good is the evidence? Lancet, 356, 814–819. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02656-8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falshaw, L., & Browne, K. D. (1997). Adverse childhood experiences and violent acts of young people in secure accommodation. Journal of Mental Health, 6, 443–455. doi:10.1080/09638239718545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Falshaw, L., Browne, K. D., & Hollin, C. R. (1996). Victim to offender: A review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 1, 389–404. doi:10.1016/S1359-1789(96)00005-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., Atkins, M., & Marcus, S. (1997). Domestic violence and children: prevalence and risk in five major US cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 116–122. doi:10.1097/00004583-199701000-00025.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farrington, D. P., Jolliffe, D., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Kalb, L. M. (2001). The concentration of offenders in families and family criminality in the prediction of boys delinquency. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 579–596. doi:10.1006/jado.2001.0424.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedrich, W. N. (2001). The abusing parent revisited: A decade of psychological research. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 170, 577–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grietens, H., Geeraert, L., & Hellinckx, W. (2004). A scale for home visiting nurses to identify risks of physical abuse and neglect among mothers with newborn infants. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 321–338. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.10.011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, C., & Browne, K. D. (2002). Predicting physical maltreatment. In K. D. Browne, H. Hanks, P. Stratton, & C. E. Hamilton (Eds.), Early prediction and prevention of child abuse: A handbook (pp. 41–56). Wiley: Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, C. E., Falshaw, L., & Browne, K. D. (2002). The link between recurrent maltreatment and offending behaviour. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 46, 75–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty, J. (2000a). The CARE Programme (Child Assessment Rating and Evaluation) Training Pack. Southend on Sea, Essex: Southend Community Care Services (NHS) Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegarty, J. (2000b). The CARE Programme (Child Assessment Rating and Evaluation). Assessment Procedures Manual for Health Visitors. Southend on Sea, Essex: Southend Community Care Services (NHS) Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, R., & Kilstrom, N. (1979). Breaking the cycle in abusive families. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 136, 1320–1322.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E. (1987). Do abused children become abusive parents? The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 186–192.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E. (1989). The intergenerational transmission of child abuse. In D. Chiccetti, & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 129–150). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E. (1993). The intergenerational transmission of abuse is overstated. In R. J. Gelles, & D. R. Loseke (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 209–221). Sage: California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luntz, B. K., & Widom, C. S. (2004). Antisocial personality disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 670–674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting rejection of her infant from mother’s representation of her own experience: implications for the abused-abusing intergenerational cycle. Child Abuse & Neglect, 8, 203–207. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(84)90009-7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Milner, J. S. (1993). Social information processing and physical child abuse. Psychological Review, 1, 275–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. D., & Locke, T. F. (2001). Intergenerational cycle of maltreatment: a popular concept obscured by methodological limitations. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1219–1240. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00267-8.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ney, P. G., Fung, T., & Wickett, A. R. (1994). The worst combinations of child abuse and neglect. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18, 705–714. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(94)00037-9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nunally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. McGrawHill: London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross, S. (1996). Risk of physical abuse to children of spouse abusing parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20, 589–598. doi:10.1016/0145-2134(96)00046-4.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spinetta, J., & Rigler, D. (1972). The abusing parent: A psychological review. Psychological Bulletin, 72, 296–304. doi:10.1037/h0032419.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Starr, R. H., MacLean, D. J., & Keating, D. P. (1991). Life-span development outcomes of child maltreatment. In R.H. Starr, & D.A. Wolfe (Eds.), The effects of child abuse and neglect: Issues and research (pp. 1–32). Guilford Press: London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steele, B., & Pollock, C. (1968). A psychiatric study of parents who abuse infants and small children. In R. Helfer, & C.H. Kempe (Eds.), The battered child syndrome (pp. 103–148). University of Chicago press Illinois: Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trickett, P. K., & Susman, E. J. (1989). Perceived similarities and disagreements about childrearing practices in abusive and non-abusive families: Intergenerational and concurrent family processes. In D. Chiccetti, & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 280–301). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S. (1989a). The cycle of violence. Science, 244, 160–166. doi:10.1126/science.2704995.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S. (1989b). Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 3–28. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S. (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 1223–1229.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S., & Shepard, R. L. (1996). Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimisation. Psychological Assessment, 8, 412–421. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S., & White, H. R. (1997). Problem behaviour in abused and neglected children grown up. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 7, 287–310. doi:10.1002/cbm.191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeanah, C. H., & Zeanah, P. D. (1989). Intergenerational transmission of maltreatment: Insights from attachment theory and research. Psychiatry, 52, 177–196.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zeanah, C. H., Benoit, D., Hirshberg, L., Barton, M. L., & Regan, C. (1994). Mothers represenations of their infants are concordant with infant attachment classifications. Development Issues in Psychiatry and Psychology, 1, 9–18.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK

    Louise Dixon & Catherine Hamilton-Giachritsis

  2. Institute of Work, Health and Organisations, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK

    Kevin Browne

Authors
  1. Louise Dixon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kevin Browne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Catherine Hamilton-Giachritsis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Louise Dixon.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Dixon, L., Browne, K. & Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. Patterns of Risk and Protective Factors in the Intergenerational Cycle of Maltreatment. J Fam Viol 24, 111–122 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9215-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9215-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation