Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Personal and Social Facets of Job Identity: A Person-Centered Approach

  • Published:
Journal of Business and Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine ego-identity (Erikson, Psychol Issues 1:1–171, 1959; Identity, youth and crisis, Norton, New York, 1968; Marcia, J Pers Soc Psychol 3:551–558, 1966) and social identity (Tajfel and Turner, In: Austin WG, Worchel S (Eds.) The social psychology of intergroup relations. Brooks/Cole, Monterey, pp 33–47 1979; Turner et al., Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Blackwell, Oxford, 1987) theories within the organizational literature. We adopted a person-centered approach to analyze whether employees classified in various identity statuses and identification profiles exhibited differences in job outcomes (i.e., burnout, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors). We also analyzed interconnections among identity statuses and identification profiles.

Design/methodology/approach

Participants were 515 employees (85.4 % women) between 24 and 64 years old. They completed self-reported questionnaires assessing personal identity, social identity, and job outcomes.

Findings

Cluster analysis indicated that participants could be classified into four identity statuses (i.e., achievement, early closure, moratorium, and searching moratorium) and into four identification profiles (i.e., orthogonal combinations of high vs. low organizational and group identification, respectively). Employees classified in the various identity statuses and identification profiles reported meaningful differences on job outcomes. Further, findings highlighted significant associations between identity statuses and identification profiles, giving rise to various identity configurations associated with job outcomes.

Implications

This study highlights the importance of integrating different facets of job identity. These findings have relevant implications in terms of suggesting which dimensions of identity should be promoted in order to reduce workers’ burnout, and enhance their satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors.

Originality/value

This study provides evidence for integrating ego-identity and social identity theories. In doing so, it bridges developmental psychology literature on personal identity with social and organizational psychology literature on social identity, setting the basis for a comprehensive line of research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. In organizational literature, the term (organizational) commitment is widely used and refers to a construct indicating “employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization” (Allen and Meyer 1990, p. 1). However, in this article, the term commitment will be used to indicate a fundamental dimension of ego-identity according to Erikson and Marcia.

References

  • Adams, G. R., & Marshall, S. (1996). A developmental social psychology of identity: Understanding the person in context. Journal of Adolescence, 19, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, N. J., & Meyer, J. P. (1990). The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 63, 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur, M. B., & Rousseau, D. M. (1996). The boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., Harrison, S. H., & Corley, K. G. (2008). Identification in organizations: An examination of four fundamental questions. Journal of Management, 34, 325–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ashforth, B. E., & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14, 20–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Avanzi, L., Van Dick, R., Fraccaroli, F., & Sarchielli, G. (2012). The downside of organizational identification: Relations between identification, workaholism and well-being. Work & Stress, 26, 289–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergami, M., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2000). Self-categorization, affective commitment and group self-esteem as distinct aspects of social identity in the organization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39, 555–577.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergman, L. R., Magnusson, D., & El Khouri, B. M. (2003). Studying individual development in an interindividual context. A person-oriented approach. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berzonsky, M. D. (2003). Identity style and well-being: Does commitment matter? Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 3, 131–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borgogni L. (1999). L’approccio sociale cognitivo allo studio delle variabili organizzative [The social cognitive approach at the study of organizational variables]. Unpublished doctoral thesis. Padua, Italy: University of Padua.

  • Bowling, N. A., Eschleman, K. J., & Wang, Q. A. (2010). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 915–934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breckenridge, J. N. (2000). Validating cluster analysis: Consistent replication and symmetry. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 35, 261–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brewer, M. B. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 475–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briscoe, J. P., & Hall, D. T. (2006). Special section on boundaryless and protean careers: Next steps in conceptualizing and measuring boundaryless and protean careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69, 1–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cavalli, A., & Argentin, G. (2010). Gli insegnanti italiani: Come cambia il modo di fare scuola [Italian teachers: How changes the way of doing school]. Bologna: il Mulino.

  • Christ, O., Van Dick, R., Wagner, U., & Stellmacher, J. (2003). When teachers go the extra mile: Foci of organisational identification as determinants of different forms of organisational citizenship behaviour among schoolteachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 329–341.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20, 37–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Palmonari, A., & Pojaghi, B. (2011). Work identity, well-being, and time perspective of typical and atypical young workers. In M. Cortini, G. Tanucci, & E. Morin (Eds.), Boundaryless careers and occupational well-being. An interdisciplinary approach (pp. 181–190). London: Palgrave MacMillan.

  • Crocetti, E., Rubini, M., & Meeus, W. (2008). Capturing the dynamics of identity formation in various ethnic groups: Development and validation of a three-dimensional model. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 207–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Schwartz, S., Fermani, A., Klimstra, T., & Meeus, W. (2012a). A cross-national study of identity statuses in Dutch and Italian adolescents: Status distributions and correlates. European Psychologist, 17, 171–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Schwartz, S., Fermani, A., & Meeus, W. (2010). The Utrecht-Management of Identity Commitments Scale (U-MICS): Italian validation and cross-national comparisons. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26, 169–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Scrignaro, M., Sica, L. S., & Magrin, M. E. (2012b). Correlates of identity configurations: Three studies with adolescent and emerging adult cohorts. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 732–748.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crocetti, E., Sica, L. S., Schwartz, S. J., Serafini, T., & Meeus, W. (2013). Identity styles, dimensions, statuses, and functions: Making connections among identity conceptualizations. European Review of Applied Psychology, 63, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Cuyper, N., De Jong, J., De Witte, H., Isaksson, K., Rigotti, T., & Schalk, R. (2008). Literature review of theory and research on the psychological impact of temporary employment: Toward a conceptual model. International Journal of Management Reviews, 10, 25–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1959). Identity and the life cycle: Selected papers. Psychological Issues, 1, 1–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth and crisis. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson and Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gore, P. A., Jr. (2000). Cluster analysis. In H. E. A. Tinsley & S. D. Brown (Eds.), Handbook of applied multivariate statistics and mathematical modeling (pp. 297–321). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. A. (2004). Psychology in organizations: The social identity approach (2nd ed.). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. A., Eggins, R. A., & Reynolds, K. J. (2003). The ASPIRe model: Actualizing social and personal identity resources to enhance organizational outcomes. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 83–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haslam, S. A., & Ellemers, N. (2011). Identity processes in organizations. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 715–744). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, N., Jepsen, D. M., & Dries, N. (2012). Career and employer change in the age of the ‘boundaryless’ career. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 81, 280–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jöreskog, K. G. & Sörbom, D. (2004). LISREL (Version 8.71), Scientific Software International. Chicago, IL.

  • Klimstra, T. A., Luyckx, K., Hale, W. W., I. I. I., Frijns, T., van Lier, P. A. C., & Meeus, W. H. J. (2010). Short-term fluctuations in identity: Introducing a micro-level approach to identity formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 191–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practices of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kristensen, T. S., Borritza, M., Villadsena, E., & Christensen, K. B. (2005). The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory: A new tool for the assessment of burnout. Work & Stress, 19, 192–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, J. (2007). Identity development: Adolescence through adulthood (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, J., & Marcia, J. E. (2011). The identity statuses: Origins, meanings, and interpretations. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 31–53). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kroger, J., Martinussen, M., & Marcia, J. E. (2010). Identity status change during adolescence and young adulthood: A meta-analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 683–698.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kyriacou, C. (2001). Teacher stress: Directions for future research. Educational Review, 53, 27–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landis, J. R., & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33, 159–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavelle, J. J., Rupp, D. E., & Brockner, J. (2007). Taking a multifoci approach to the study of justice, social exchange, and citizenship behavior: The target similarity model. Journal of Management, 33, 841–866.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linville, P. W. (1985). Self-complexity and affective extremity—Don’t put all of your eggs in one cognitive basket. Social Cognition, 3, 94–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linville, P. W. (1987). Self-complexity as a cognitive buffer against stress-related illness and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 663–676.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lipponen, J., Helkama, K., Olkkonen, M.-E., & Juslin, M. (2005). Predicting the different profiles of organizational identification: A case of shipyard subcontractors. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 97–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luyckx, K., Duriez, B., Klimstra, T., & De Witte, H. (2010). Identity statuses in young adult employees: Prospective relations with work engagement and burnout. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77, 339–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mael, F., & Ashforth, B. E. (1992). Alumni and their alma mater: A partial test of the reformulated model of organizational identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 103–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 551–558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marcia, J. E. (2002). Identity and psychosocial development in adulthood. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 2, 7–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). MBI: Maslach Burnout Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). Maslach Burnout Inventory Manual (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W. (1996). Studies on identity development in adolescence: An overview of research and some new data. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 25, 569–598.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W. (2011). The study of adolescent identity formation 2000–2010. A review of longitudinal research. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 75–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W., Iedema, J., Helsen, M., & Vollebergh, W. (1999). Patterns of adolescent identity development: Review of literature and longitudinal analysis. Developmental Review, 19, 419–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meeus, W., Van de Schoot, R., Keijsers, L., Schwartz, S. J., & Branje, S. (2010). On the progression and stability of adolescent identity formation: A five-wave longitudinal study in early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescence. Child Development, 81, 1565–1581.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milligan, G. W. (1980). An examination of the effect of six types of error perturbation on fifteen clustering algorithms. Psychometrika, 45, 325–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milligan, G. W., & Cooper, M. C. (1985). An examination of procedures for determining the number of clusters in a data set. Psychometrika, 50, 159–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milligan, G. W., & Hirtle, S. C. (2003). Clustering and classification methods. In J. Schinka & W. Velicer (Eds.), Comprehensive handbook of psychology (pp. 165–186). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munley, P. H. (1977). Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 10, 261–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, M. S. (2002). Using a single-item approach to measure facet job satisfaction. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75, 77–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson, N. (1984). A theory of work role transitions. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29, 172–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norušis, M. J. (2009). Cluster analysis. In M. J. Norušis (Ed.), SPSS 17.0 Statistical Procedures Companion (pp. 361–391). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Organ, D. W. (1990). The motivational basis of organizational citizenship behavior. In B. Staw & L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (pp. 43–72). Greenwich: CT JAL Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petitta, L., Borgogni, L., Mastrorilli, A., & Scarpa, A. (2004). Organizational citizenship behavior ed efficacia dell’organizzazione [Organizational citizenship behavior and organizational efficacy]. Bollettino di Psicologia Applicata, 243, 15–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Podsakoff, P. M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (1989). A second generation measure of organizational citizenship behaviors. Unpublished Manuscript, Indiana University.

  • Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Porfeli, E. J., Lee, B., Vondracek, F. W., & Weigold, I. K. (2011). A multi-dimensional measure of vocational identity status. Journal of Adolescence, 34, 853–871.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riketta, M., & Van Dick, R. (2005). Foci of attachment in organizations: A meta-analytic comparison of the strength and correlates of workgroup versus organizational identification and commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 67, 490–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaufeli, W. B., & Taris, T. W. (2005). The conceptualization and measurement of burnout: Common ground and worlds apart. Work and Stress, 19, 256–262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J., Vignoles, V. L., & Luyckx, K. (2011). Epilogue: What’s next for identity theory and research. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 933–938). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Serafini, T. E., & Adams, G. R. (2002). Functions of identity: Scale construction and validation. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 2, 361–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sirigatti, S., & Stefanile, C. (1993). Manuale: MBI, Maslach Burnout Inventory. Florencey: Organizzazioni Speciali.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skorikov, V., & Vondracek, F. W. (2011). Occupational identity. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 693–714). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. C., Kendall, L. M., & Hulin, C. L. (1969). The measurement of satisfaction in work and retirement. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spector, P. E. (2006). Method variance in organizational research truth or urban legend? Organizational Research Methods, 9, 221–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16, 282–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H. (1972). Experiments in a vacuum. In J. Israel & H. Tajfel (Eds.), The context of social psychology. London: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tinsley, H. E. A., & Brown, S. D. (2000). Multivariate statistics and mathematical modeling. In H. E. A. Tinsley & S. D. Brown (Eds.), Handbook of applied multivariate statistics and mathematical modeling (pp. 3–36). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Dick, R. (2001). Identification in organizational contexts: Linking theory and research from social and organizational psychology. International Journal of Management Reviews, 3, 265–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dick, R., Grojean, M. W., Christ, O., & Wieseke, J. (2006). Identity and the extra mile: Relationships between organizational identification and organizational citizenship behaviour. British Journal of Management, 17, 283–301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dick, R., & Haslam, S. A. (2012). Stress and well-being in the workplace: Support for key propositions from the social identity approach. In J. Jetten, C. Haslam, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social cure: Identity, health, and well-being (pp. 175–194). Hove: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Dick, R., Van Knippenberg, D., Kerschreiter, R., Hertel, G., & Wieseke, J. (2008). Interactive effects of work group and organizational identification on job satisfaction and extra-role behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72, 388–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dick, R., Wagner, U., Stellmacher, J., & Christ, O. (2004). The utility of a broader conceptualization of organizational identification: Which aspects really matter? Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 171–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Knippenberg, D., Van Knippenberg, B., De Cremer, D., & Hogg, M. A. (2004). Leadership, self, and identity: A review and research agenda. The Leadership Quarterly, 15, 825–856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Knippenberg, D., & Van Schie, E. C. M. (2000). Foci and correlates of organizational identification. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 73, 137–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vignoles, V. L., Schwartz, S. J., & Luyckx, K. (2011). Introduction: Toward an integrative view of identity. In S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. L. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 1–27). New York: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Von Eye, A., & Bogat, A. (2006). Person-oriented and variable-oriented research: Concepts, results, and development. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52, 390–420.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, M., & Hanges, P. J. (2011). Latent class procedures: Applications to organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 14, 24–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Hudy, M. J. (1997). Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 247–252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wegge, J., Van Dick, R., Fisher, G. K., Wecking, C., & Moltzen, K. (2006). Work motivation, organizational identification, and well-being in call centre work. Work & Stress, 20, 60–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Elisabetta Crocetti was supported by a Marie Curie fellowship (FP7-PEOPLE-2010-IEF; Project No. 272400).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Research Centre Adolescent Development, Utrecht University, Martinus J. Langeveldgebouw, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands

    Elisabetta Crocetti, Skyler T. Hawk & Wim Meeus

  2. University of Trento, Trento, Italy

    Lorenzo Avanzi & Franco Fraccaroli

  3. Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Wim Meeus

Authors
  1. Elisabetta Crocetti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lorenzo Avanzi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Skyler T. Hawk
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Franco Fraccaroli
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Wim Meeus
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elisabetta Crocetti.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Crocetti, E., Avanzi, L., Hawk, S.T. et al. Personal and Social Facets of Job Identity: A Person-Centered Approach. J Bus Psychol 29, 281–300 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9313-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-013-9313-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation