Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Maintenance and Generalization in Functional Behavior Assessment/Behavior Intervention Plan Literature

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Behavioral Education Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

School practitioners increasingly use functional behavior assessments to design behavior intervention plans when students engage in challenging behavior that is not improved by classroom management or standard interventions. Behavior intervention plans should aim to produce behavior change that maintains across time and generalizes to relevant contexts. In applied terms, maintenance occurs when a behavior continues to occur after the intervention is fully or partially withdrawn; generalization occurs when a learner engages in a trained behavior in an untrained context. This review examined the current status of maintenance and generalization in the school-based FBA/BIP literature and found that many school-based researchers continue to implement the intervention during the maintenance phase or in the generalization contexts. Implications for practice and directions for future research are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aitken, A., Harlan, A., Hankins, K., Michels, J., Moore, T. C., Oakes, W. P., et al. (2011). Increasing academic engagement during writing activities in an urban elementary classroom. Beyond Behavior, 20, 38–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Athens, E. S., & Vollmer, T. R. (2010). An investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43, 569–589.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, D. M. (1981). How to plan for generalization. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baer, D. M., Stolz, S. B., & Fowler, S. A. (1984). Self-management tactics for the developmentally disabled. New York City: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91–97.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Broden, M., Hall, R. V., & Mitts, B. (1971). The effect of self-recording on the classroom behavior of two eighth-grade students. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 4, 191–199.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, A., & Tincani, M. (2011). The power card strategy: Strength-based intervention to increase direction following of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13, 1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cannella-Malone, H. I., Tullis, C. A., & Kazee, A. R. (2011). Using antecedent exercise to decrease challenging behavior in boys with developmental disabilities and an emotional disorder. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 13, 230–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, S. D., & Merical, C. L. (2006). The use of functional communication training without additional treatment procedures in an inclusive school setting. Behavioral Disorders, 32, 46–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, S. D., Perrin, C. J., Merical, C. L., Lecomte, J. M., Milligan, J., & Walsh-Czekalski, M. (2008). Increasing bite acceptance and reducing food refusal in a child with Autism: Moving beyond the clinic. Journal of Behavior Analysis in Health, Sports, Fitness, and Medicine, 1, 34–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, M., Hyppa-Martin, J. K., Reichle, J. E., & Symons, F. J. (2016). Comparing single case design overlap-based effect size metrics from studies examining speech generating device interventions. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 121, 169–193.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cho Blair, K. S., Liaupsin, C. J., Umbreit, J., & Kweon, G. (2006). Function-based intervention to support the inclusive placements of young children in Korea. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 41, 48–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cho Blair, K. S., Umbreit, J., Dunlap, G., & Jung, G. (2007). Promoting inclusion and peer participation through assessment-based intervention. Teaching Early Childhood Special Education, 273, 134–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuvo, A. J. (2003). On stimulus generalization and stimulus classes. Journal of Behavioral Education, 12, 77–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D. H., Fredrick, L. D., Alberto, P. A., & Gama, R. (2012). Functional communication training without extinction using concurrent schedules of differing magnitudes of reinforcement in classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 162–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeJager, B. W., & Filter, K. J. (2015). Effects of prevent-teach-reinforce on academic engagement and disruptive behavior. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 31, 369–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunlap, G., & Johnson, J. (1985). Increasing the independent responding of autistic children with unpredictable supervision. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 227–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeland, J. T., & Noell, G. H. (2002). Programming for maintenance: An investigation of delayed intermittent reinforcement and common stimuli to create indiscriminable contingencies. Journal of Behavioral Education, 11, 5–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Germer, K. A., Kaplan, L. M., Giroux, L. N., Markham, E. H., Ferris, G. J., Oakes, W. P., et al. (2011). A function-based intervention to increase a second-grade student’s on-task behavior in a general education classroom. Beyond Behavior, 20, 19–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goh, A. E., & Bambara, L. M. (2012). Individualized positive behavior support in school settings: A meta-analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 33, 271–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groskreutz, N. C., Groskreutz, M. P., Bloom, S. E., & Slocum, T. A. (2014). Generalization of negatively reinforced mands in children with autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 47, 560–579.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoch, H., McComas, J. J., Thompson, A. L., & Paone, D. (2002). Concurrent reinforcement schedules: Behavior change and maintenance without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 155–169.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Holman, J., & Baer, D. M. (1979). Facilitating generalization of on-task behavior through self-monitoring of academic tasks. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9, 429–446.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horner, R. H., Dunlap, G., Koegel, R. L., Carr, E. G., Sailor, W., Anderson, J., et al. (1990). Toward a technology of nonaversive behavior support. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 15, 125–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, K., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai, G. (2005). Function-based intervention planning: Comparing the effectiveness of FBA function-based and non-function-based intervention plans. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7, 224–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janney, D. M., Umbreit, J., Ferro, J. B., Liaupsin, C. J., & Lane, K. L. (2012). The effect of the extinction procedure in function-based intervention. Journal on Positive Behavior Interventions, 15, 113–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kern, L., Gallagher, P., Starosta, K., Hickman, W., & George, M. (2006). Longitudinal outcomes of functional behavioral assessment based intervention. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8, 67–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kincaid, D., Dunlap, G., Kern, L., Lane, K. L., Bambara, L. M., Brown, F., et al. (2015). Positive behavior support: A proposal for updating and refining the definition. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 18, 69–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, K. C., & Bickel, W. K. (1988). Toward an explicit analysis of generalization: A stimulus control interpretation. The Behavior Analyst, 11, 115–129.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Koegel, R. L., & Rincover, A. (1977). Research on the difference between generalization and maintenance in extra-therapy responding. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 1–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, K. L., Eisner, S. L., Kretzer, J., Bruhn, A. L., Funke, L., Lerner, T., et al. (2009). Outcomes of functional assessment-based interventions for students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders in a job-share setting. Education and Treatment of Children, 32, 573–604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lane, K. L., Rogers, L. A., Parks, R. J., Weisenbach, J. L., Mau, A. C., Merwin, M. T., et al. (2007). Function-based interventions for students who are nonresponsive to primary and secondary prevention efforts: Illustrations at the elementary and middle school levels. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 15, 169–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lo, Y., & Cartledge, G. (2006). FBA and BIP: Increasing the behavior adjustment of African American boys in schools. Behavioral Disorders, 31, 147–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Losinski, M., Maag, J. W., Katsiyannis, A., & Ryan, J. B. (2015). The use of structural behavioral assessment to develop interventions for secondary students exhibiting challenging behaviors. Education and Treatment of Children, 38, 149–174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majeika, C. E., Wälder, J. P., Hubbard, J. P., Steeb, K. M., Ferris, G. J., Oakes, W. P., et al. (2011). Improving on-task behavior using a functional assessment-based intervention in an inclusive high school setting. Beyond Behavior, 20, 55–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mank, D. M., & Horner, R. H. (1987). Self-recruited feedback: A cost-effective procedure for maintaining behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 8, 91–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, G. R., Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Wallace, M. (2011). Behavior analysis for lasting change (2nd ed.). Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mueller, M. M., & Nkosi, A. (2007). State of the science in the assessment and management of severe behavior problems in school settings: Behavior analytic consultation to schools. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3, 176–202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ninness, H. A. C., Fuerst, J., Rutherford, R. D., & Glenn, S. S. (1991). Effects of self-management training and reinforcement on the transfer of improved conduct in the absence of supervision. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 499–508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pace, G. M., Ivancic, M. T., & Jefferson, G. (1994). Stimulus fading as treatment for obscenity in a brain-injured adult. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 301–305.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paine, S. C., Hops, H., Walker, H. M., Greenwood, C. R., Fleischman, D. H., & Guild, J. J. (1982). Repeated treatment effects: A study of maintaining behavior change in socially withdrawn children. Behavior Modification, 6, 171–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Payne, L. D., Scott, T. M., & Conroy, M. (2007). A school-based examination of the efficacy of function-based intervention. Behavioral Disorders, 32, 158–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reeves, L. M., Umbreit, J., Ferro, J. B., & Liaupsin, C. J. (2013). Function-based intervention to support the inclusion of students with autism. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 48, 379–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Restori, A. F., Gresham, F. M., Chang, T., Lee, H. B., & Laija-Rodriquez, W. (2007). Functional assessment-based interventions for children at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. The California School Psychologist, 12, 9–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rusch, F. R., & Kazdin, A. E. (1981). Toward a methodology of withdrawal designs for the assessment of response maintenance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 131–140.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, M. L., & Hawkins, R. P. (1970). Application of delayed reinforcement procedures to the behavior of an elementary school child. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 3, 85–96.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & Casto, G. (1987). The quantitative synthesis of single-subject research: Methodology and validation. Remedial and Special Education, 8, 24–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seymour, F. W., & Stokes, T. F. (1976). Self-recording in training girls to increas work and evoke staff praise in an institution for offenders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 9, 41–54.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Skinner, J. N., Veerkamp, M. B., Kamps, D. M., & Andra, P. R. (2009). Teacher and peer participation in functional analysis and intervention for a first grade student with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Education and Treatment of Children, 32, 243–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sprague, J., & Perkins, K. (2009). Direct and collateral effects of the first step to success program. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11, 208–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stichter, J. P., Randolph, J. K., Kay, D., & Gage, N. (2009). The use of structural analysis to develop antecedent-based interventions for students with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0693-8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stokes, T. F., & Baer, D. M. (1977). An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349–367.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stokes, T. F., Baer, D. M., & Jackson, R. L. (1974). Programming the generalization of a greeting response in four retarded children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 7, 599–610. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1974.7-599.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stokes, T. F., & Osnes, P. G. (1989). An operant pursuit of generalization. Behavior Therapy, 20, 337–355. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(89)80054-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strain, P. S., Wilson, K., & Dunlap, G. (2011). Prevent-teach-reinforce: Addressing problem behaviors of students with autism in general education classrooms. Behavioral Disorders, 36, 160–171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P., & Bruzek, J. (2008). Functional communication training: A review and practical guide. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 1, 16–23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van den Pol, R. A., Iwata, B. A., Ivancic, M. T., Page, T. J., Neef, N. A., & Whitley, F. P. (1981). Teaching the handicapped to eat in public places: Acquisition, generalization and maintenance of restaurant skills. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 61–69.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wacker, D. P., Harding, J. W., Berg, W. K., Lee, J. F., Schieltz, K. M., Padilla, Y. C., et al. (2011). An evaluation of persistence of treatment effects during long-term treatment of destructive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 96, 261–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wahler, R. G. (1969). Setting generality: Some specific and general effects of child behavior therapy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 2, 239–246.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, B. K., Umbreit, J., Liaupsin, C. J., & Gresham, F. M. (2007). A treatment integrity analysis of function-based intervention. Education and Treatment of Children, 30, 105–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

The research described in this article was supported in part by Grant H325H140001 from the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education. Nothing in the article necessarily reflects the positions or policies of the federal government, and no official endorsement by it should be inferred.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Educational Psychology, University of Minnesota, 250 Education Sciences, 56 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA

    Brittany Pennington, Jessica Simacek, Jennifer McComas, Kristen McMaster & Marianne Elmquist

Authors
  1. Brittany Pennington
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jessica Simacek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jennifer McComas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kristen McMaster
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Marianne Elmquist
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brittany Pennington.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pennington, B., Simacek, J., McComas, J. et al. Maintenance and Generalization in Functional Behavior Assessment/Behavior Intervention Plan Literature. J Behav Educ 28, 27–53 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-018-9299-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-018-9299-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation