Abstract
Parenting stress has been linked to negative outcomes for both parents and children, including poor attachment, behavior problems, less positive parent–child interactions, and marital dissatisfaction. Given that parents of special needs children often experience excess stress, they may be susceptible to negative outcomes, thus investigations of protective factors are needed. We explored relationships among parenting stress, social support, mode of communication, and child cochlear implant status in parents rearing a deaf child or child with hearing loss. Findings of our exploratory study indicated that parents of children who use sign language only reported more support, while parents of children who use total communication exhibited less self-reported stress. Also, parents with children who use implants did not differ on any of the measures compared to parents of children without implants. Additional findings suggested that higher levels of perceived social support corresponded with lower stress among parents, however, receipt of supportive behaviors did not correlate significantly with parenting stress. In an overall model, perceived social support and mode of communication were significant predictors of parenting stress. Finally, enacted support predicted significantly life satisfaction in parents. Implications and limitations, as well as suggestions for future research, will also be offered.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abidin, R. R. (1990). The parenting stress index (short form). Charlottesville: Pediatric Press.
Abidin, R. R. (1997). The parenting stress index: A measure of the parent–child system. In C. P. Zalaquett & R. J. Woods (Eds.), Evaluating stress. Lathan: University Press of America.
Allen, N. B., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1998). Prenatal and perinatal influences on risk for psychopathology in childhood and adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 513–529.
Barrera, M., Jr., Sandler, I. N., & Ramsay, T. B. (1981). Preliminary development of a scale of social support: Studies on college students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 435–447.
Beckman, P. J. (1991). Comparison of mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of the effect of young children with and without disabilities. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 95, 585–595.
Bess, F. H., & Paradise, J. L. (1994). Universal screening for infant hearing impairment: Not simple, not risk-free, nor necessarily beneficial, and presently justified. Pediatrics, 93, 330–334.
Chaffee, C. A., Cunningham, C. E., Secord-Gilbert, M., Elbard, H., & Richards, J. (1990). Screening effectiveness of the Minnesota Child Development Inventory expressive and receptive language scales: Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive value. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2, 80–85.
Crnik, K., & Low, C. (2002). Everyday stresses and parenting. In M. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Practical issues in parenting (2nd ed., pp. 243–268). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
Dunn, M., Burbine, T., Bowers, C., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2001). Moderators of stress in parents of children with autism. Community Mental Health Journal, 37, 39–52.
Dyson, L. L. (1991). Families of young children with handicaps: Parental stress and family functioning. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 95, 623–629.
Ello, L. M., & Donovan, S. J. (2005). Assessment of the relationship between parenting stress and a child’s ability to functionally communicate. Research on Social Work Practice, 15, 531–544.
Eurelings-Bontekoe, E. H., Diekstra, R. F., & Verschuur, M. (1995). Psychological distress, social support and social support seeking: A prospective study among primary mental health care patients. Social Science Medicine, 40, 1083–1089.
Feher-Prout, T. (1996). Stress and coping in families with deaf children. Journal of Deaf Studies and Education, 1, 155–166.
Fenster, R. G. (1988). The effect of the deaf child upon the family. Australian Journal of Sex, Marriage and Family, 9, 225–234.
Forgays, D. K., Hasazi, J. E., & Wasserman, R. C. (1992). Recurrent otitis media and parenting stress in mothers of two-year-old children. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 13, 321–325.
Gray, D. E., & Holden, W. J. (1992). Psychosocial well-being among the parents of children with autism. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 18, 83–93.
Greenberg, M. T. (1983). Family stress and child competence: The effects of early intervention for families with deaf infants. American Annals of the Deaf, 128, 407–417.
Hagborg, W. J. (1989). A comparative study of parental stress among mothers and fathers of deaf school-age children. Journal of Community Psychology, 17, 220–224.
Hassall, R., Rose, J., & McDonald, J. (2005). Parenting stress in mothers of children with an intellectual disability: The effects of parental cognitions in relation to child characteristics and family support. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 49, 405–418.
Hintermair, M. (2000). Hearing impairment, social networks, and coping: The need for families with hearing-impaired children to relate to other parents and to hearing-impaired adults. American Annals of the Deaf, 145, 41–53.
Innocenti, M. S., Huh, K., & Boyce, G. C. (1992). Families of children with disabilities: Normative data and other considerations on parenting stress. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 12, 403–427.
Kirk, K. I., Miyamoto, R. T., & Ying, E. A. (2000). Cochlear implantation in young children: Effects of age at implantation and communication mode. Volta Review, 102, 127–144.
Koeske, G., & Koeske, R. (1990). The buffering effect of social support on parental stress. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 440–451.
Konstantareas, M., & Lampropoulou, V. (1995). Stress in Greek mothers with deaf children: effects of child characteristics, family resources and cognitive set. American Annals of the Deaf, 140, 264–270.
Lavee, Y., Sharlin, S., & Katz, R. (1996). The effect of parenting stress on marital quality. An integrated mother–father model. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 114–135.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
Lederberg, A. R., & Golbach, T. (2002). Parenting stress and social support in hearing mothers of deaf and hearing children: A longitudinal study. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7, 330–345.
Meadow-Orlans, K. (1994). Stress, social support, and deafness: Perceptions of infants’ mothers and fathers. Journal of Early Intervention, 18, 91–102.
Meadow-Orlans, K. (1995). Sources of stress for mothers and fathers of deaf and hard of hearing infants. American Annals of the Deaf, 140, 352–357.
Meadow-Orlans, K. P., & Steinberg, A. G. (1993). Effects of infant hearing loss and maternal support on mother–infant interactions at 18 months. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 14, 407–426.
Morgan-Redshaw M., Wilgosh, L., & Bibby, M. (1990). The parental experiences of mothers of adolescents with hearing impairments. American Annals of the Deaf, 135, 293–298.
Newland, J., & Furnham, A. (1999). Perceived availability of social support. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 659–663.
Östberg, M., & Hagekull, B. (2000). A structural modeling approach to the understanding of parenting stress. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 615–625.
Pelchat, D., Ricard, N., Bouchard, J.-M., Perreault, M., Saucier, J.-E., Berthiaume, M., & Bisson, J. (1999). Adaptation of parents in relation to their 6 month old infant’s type of disability. Childcare, Health, and Development, 25, 377–397.
Peterson, P. (1984). Effects of moderator variables in reducing stress outcome in mothers of children with handicaps. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 28, 337–344.
Pipp-Siegel, S., Sedey, A. L., & Yoshinaga-Itano, C. (2002). Predictors of parental stress in mothers of young children with hearing loss. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 7, 1–17.
Quittner, A. L. (1991). Coping with a hearing-impaired child. In J. H. Johnson & S. B. Johnson (Eds.), Advances in child health psychology (pp. 206–223). Gainesville: University of Florida Press.
Quittner, A. L., Glueckauf, R. L., & Jackson, D. N. (1990). Chronic parenting stress: Moderating versus mediating effects of social support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1266–1278.
Ross, L., Lutz, C., & Lakey, B. (1999). Perceived social support and attributions for failed support. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 896–909.
Russo, T. J., & Fallon, M. A. (2001). Helping military families who have a child with disability cope with stress. Early Childhood Education Journal, 29, 3–8.
Sarason, B. R., Sheaerin, E. N., Pierce, G. R., & Sarason, I. G. (1987). Interrelations of social support measures: Theoretical and practical implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 813–832.
Sepa, A., Frodi, A., & Ludvigsson, J. (2004). Psychosocial correlates of parenting stress, lack of support and lack of confidence/security. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 45, 169–179.
Smith, T., Oliver, M., & Innocenti, M. S. (2001). Parenting stress in families of children with disabilities. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 71, 257–261.
Yoshinaga-Itano, C., Sedey, A. L., Coulter, D. K., & Mehl, A. L. (1998). Language of early- and later-identified children with hearing loss. Pediatrics, 102, 1161–1171.
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Åsberg, K.K., Vogel, J.J. & Bowers, C.A. Exploring Correlates and Predictors of Stress in Parents of Children Who are Deaf: Implications of Perceived Social Support and Mode of Communication. J Child Fam Stud 17, 486–499 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-007-9169-7
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-007-9169-7