Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Criminal Victimization, Depressive Symptoms, and Behavioral Avoidance Coping in Late Adulthood: The Conditioning Role of Strong Familial Ties

  • Published:
Journal of Adult Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study examined the association criminal victimization has with two mental health outcomes (i.e., depressive symptoms and behavioral avoidance coping) among older adults. This study also tested whether strong familial ties condition the harmful results of victimization. This study used cross-sectional survey data from interviews conducted in Arizona and Florida with individuals 60 years and older (N = 2000). Linear regression was used to test the hypotheses. Victims reported higher depressive symptoms and greater behavioral avoidance coping. The link between victimization and depression was weaker among participants with strong attachments to their spouse and to their children. Strong spousal ties also diminished the link between criminal victimization and behavioral avoidance coping. These findings are consistent with research conducted at earlier stages of the life course. Practitioners should work with older crime victims to identify interventions that provide the types of support found in strong familial relationships.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. The rates for three types of victimization used in the scale (i.e., 5.3% for theft, 2.6% for consumer fraud, and 1.1% for violence) are comparable to other studies using older population segments. For example, the rate of theft and violent victimization in The National Elder Mistreatment Study was 5.2 and 1.6% (Acierno et al. 2010, p. 294). Similarly, a statewide survey of Florida residents revealed that the rate of consumer fraud victimization among individuals 65 and older was 1.8% (Holtfreter et al. 2006, p. 780). The similarities in victimization rates across studies provides added confidence in the representative nature of the sample used in the study.

  2. This coding strategy was empirically evaluated. Results from one-way ANOVA models revealed differences across the five response categories for the attachment to spouse variable (F = 18.71 for depressive symptoms and 8.25 for behavioral avoidance coping, p < .01). Results show that individuals who were extremely unhappy with their marriage had the highest mean scores (means = 0.68 for depressive symptoms and 0.57 behavioral avoidance coping), followed by those who were somewhat unhappy (means = 0.38 and 0.42), followed by individuals who were not married (means = 0.09 and 0.08), followed by people who were somewhat happy (0.02 and 0.07), and extremely happy individuals had the lowest scores (means = −0.09 and −0.06). Significant group differences were also observed when assessing the attachment to children variable (F = 8.00 for depressive symptoms and 4.92 for behavioral avoidance coping, p < .01). Overall, these findings support the coding strategy used in this study.

References

  • Acierno, R., Hernandez, M., Amstadter, A., Resnick, H., Steve, K., Muzzy, W., & Kilpatrick, D. (2010). Prevalence and correlates of emotional, physical, sexual, and financial abuse and potential neglect in the United States: The National Elder Mistreatment Study. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 292–297. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.163089.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Adams, K., Leibbrandt, S., & Moon, H. (2011). A critical review of the literature on social and leisure activity and well-being in later life. Ageing and Society, 31, 683–712. doi:10.1017/S0144686X10001091.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L., & West, S. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexopoulos, G. (2005). Depression in the elderly. The Lancet, 365, 1961–1970. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66665-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Andridge, R., & Little, R. (2010). A review of hot deck imputation for survey non-response. International Statistical Review, 78, 40–64. doi:10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00103.x.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Antonakis, J., Bendahan, S., Jacquart, P., & Lalive, R. (2010). On making causal claims: A review and recommendations. The Leadership Quarterly, 21, 1086–1120. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, S. (2004). General strain, street youth and crime: A test of Agnew’s revised theory. Criminology, 42, 457–483. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tn00526.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg, S., & Luke, J. (2011). Wireless substitution: Early release of estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, January-June 2011. Atlanta, GA: National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brink, T., Yesavage, J., Lum, O., Heersema, P., Adey, M., & Rose, T. (1982). Screening tests for geriatric depression. Clinical Gerontologist, 1, 37–43. doi:10.1300/J018v01n01_06.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. London: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Callahan, C., Unverzagt, F., Hui, S., Perkins, A., & Hendrie, H. (2002). Six-item screener to identify cognitive impairment among potential subjects for clinical research. Medical Care, 40, 771–781. doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2010.06.560.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., Underwood, L., & Gottlieb, B. (Eds.). (2000). Social support measurement and intervention: A guide for health and social scientists. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Comijs, H., Penninx, B., Knipscheer, K., & Tilburg, W. (1999). Psychological distress in victims of elder mistreatment: The effects of social support and coping. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 54B, P240–P245. doi:10.1093/geronb/54B.4P240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coursolle, K., Sweeney, M., Raymo, J., & Ho, J. (2010). The association between retirement and emotional well-being: Does prior work-family conflict matter? The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Social Sciences, 65, 609–620. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbp116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • de Jong Gierveld, J., Groneou, M., Hoogendoor, A., & Smit, J. (2009). Quality of marriages in later life and emotional and social loneliness. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Social Sciences, 64, 497–506. doi:10.1093/gbn0433.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Desjardins, T., & Leadbeater, B. (2011). Relational victimization and depressive symptoms in adolescence: Moderating effects of mother, father, and peer emotional support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 531–544. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9562-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dohrenwend, B. (2006). Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 477–499. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.477.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Enders, C., & Bandalos, D. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 430–457. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0803_5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fattah, E., & Sacco, V. (1989). Crime and victimization of the elderly. New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Friedmann, E., Thomas, S., Liu, F., Morton, P., Chapa, D., & Gottlieb, S. (2006). Relationship of depression, anxiety, and social isolation to chronic heart failure outpatient mortality. American Heart Journal, 152, 940e1-940e8. doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2006.05.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guimond, F., Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Dionne, G., & Bovin, M. (2015). Peer victimization and anxiety in genetically vulnerable youth: The protective roles of teachers’ self-efficacy and anti-bullying classroom rules. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 1095–1106. doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0001-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ha, J. (2010). The effects of positive and negative support from children on widowed adults’ psychological adjustment: A longitudinal analysis. The Gerontologist, 50, 471–481. doi:10.1093/geront/gnp163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, T., Kaplan, L., French, M., & Johnson, R. (2010). Victimization in early life and mental health in adulthood: An examination of the mediating and moderating influences of psychosocial resources. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 51, 48–63. doi:10.1177/0022146509361194.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holtfreter, K., Reisig, M., & Blomberg, T. (2006). Consumer fraud victimization in Florida: An empirical study. St. Thomas Law Review, 18, 761–789.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holtfreter, K., Reisig, M., Mears, D., & Wolfe, S. (2014). Financial exploitation of the elderly in a consumer context. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holtfreter, K., Reisig, M., & Turanovic, J. (2016). Self-rated poor health and loneliness in late adulthood: Testing the moderating role of familial ties. Advances in Life Course Research, 27, 61–68. doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2015.11.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T., & Layton, J. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLoS Medicine, 7, e1000316. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000316.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyl, M., Alessi, C., Harker, J., Josephson, K., Pietruszka, F., Koelfgen, M., … Rubenstein, L. (1999). Development and testing of a five-item version of the geriatric depression scale. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 47, 873–878. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1999.tb03848.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jang, Y., Haley, W., Small, B., & Mortimer, J. (2002). The role of mastery and social resources in the association between disability and depression in later life. The Gerontologist, 42, 807–813. doi:10.1093/geront/42.6.807.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jonker, A., Comijs, H., Knipscheer, K., & Deeg, D. (2009). The role of coping resources on change in well-being during persistent health decline. Journal of Aging and Health, 21, 1063–1082. doi:10.1177/0898264309344682.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kivett, V., Stevenson, M., & Zwane, C. (2000). Very-old rural adults: Functional status and social support. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 19, 58–77. doi:10.1177/073346480001900104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kliewer, W., & Zaharakis, N. (2013). Community violence exposure, coping, and problematic alcohol and drug use among urban, female caregivers: A prospective study. Personality and Individual Differences, 55, 361–366. doi:10.1016/j/paid.2013.03.020.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Langton, L., & Truman, J. (2014). Socio-emotional impact of violent crime. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levenson, R., Carstensen, L., & Gottman, J. (1993). Long-term marriage: Age, gender, and satisfaction. Psychology & Aging, 8, 301–313. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.8.2.301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logan, J., & Spitze, G. (2010). Family ties: Enduring relations between parents and their children. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macmillan, R. (2001). Violence and the life course: The consequences of victimization for personal and social development. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 1–22. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menesini, E., Modena, M., & Tani, F. (2009). Bullying and victimization in adolescence: Concurrent and stable roles and psychological health symptoms. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 170, 115–133. doi:10.3200/GNTP.170.2.115-134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minkler, M., & Fuller-Thompson, E. (2005). African American grandparents raising grandchildren: A national study using the Census 2000 American Community Survey. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Social Sciences, 60, S82-92. doi: 10.1093/geronb/60.2.S82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, K., Ybarra, M., & Finkelhor, D. (2007). The relative importance of online victimization in understanding depression, delinquency, and substance use. Child Maltreatment, 12, 314–324. doi:10.1177/107755907305996.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, M., Holden, G., & Delville, Y. (2011). Coping with the stress of being bullied: Consequences of coping strategies among college students. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2, 205–211. doi:10.1177/1948550610386388.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palm, K., & Follette, V. (2011). The roles of cognitive flexibility and experiential avoidance in explaining psychological distress in survivors of interpersonal victimization. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 79–86. doi:10.1007/s10862-010-92-1-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. (1999). The stress process revisited: Reflections on concepts and their relationships. In C. Aneshensel & J. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 395–415). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/0-387-36223-1_19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L., Aneshensel, C., & LeBlanc, A. (1997). The forms and mechanisms of stress proliferation: The case of AIDS caregivers. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38, 223–236. doi:10.2307/295536810.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L., Aneshensel, C., Mullan, J., & Whitlach, C. (1995). Caregiving and its social support. In R. Binstock & L. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (4th ed., pp. 283–302). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L., Lieberman, M., Menaghan, E., & Mulan, J. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22, 337–356.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pressman, S., Cohen, S., Miller, G., Barkin, A., Rabin, B., & Treanor, J. (2005). Loneliness, social network size, and immune response to influenza vaccination in college freshmen. Health Psychology, 24, 297–306. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.297.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raynolds, H. T. (1984). Analysis of nominal data (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Reisig, M., & Holtfreter, K. (2013). Shopping fraud among the elderly. Journal of Financial Crime, 20, 324–337. doi:10.1108/JFC-03-2013-0014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rigby, K. E. N. (2000). Effects of peer victimization in schools and perceived social support on adolescent well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 23, 57–68. doi:10.1006/jado.1999.0289.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, L., Weatherill, R., Taft, C., & Orazem, R. (2012). Examining gender differences in the relationship between dating violence victimization and anger in college students. Violence and Victims, 27, 70–77. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.27.1.70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, A., & Willits, F. (2007). Family ties, physical health, and psychological well-being. Journal of Aging and Health, 19, 907–920. doi:10.1177/0898264307308340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shor, E., Roelfs, D., & Yogev, T. (2013). The strength of family ties: A meta-analysis and meta-regression of self-reported social support and mortality. Social Networks, 35, 626–638. doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2013.08.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stadler, C., Feifel, J., Rohrmann, S., Vermeiren, R., & Poutska, F. (2010). Peer victimization and mental health problems in adolescents: Are parental and school support protective? Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 41, 371–386. doi:10.1007/s10578-010-0174-5.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, N., & Westerhof, G. (2006). Marriage, social integration, and loneliness in the second half of life: A comparison of Dutch and German men and women. Research on Aging, 28, 713–729. doi:10.1177/0164027506291747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Truman, J., & Langton, L. (2015). Criminal victimization, 2014. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turanovic, J. (2015). The age-graded consequences of victimization. Doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University Digital Repository. http://hdl.handle.net/2286/R.A.150774.

  • Turanovic, J., & Pratt, T. (2015). Longitudinal effects of violent victimization during adolescence on adverse outcomes in adulthood: A focus on prosocial attachments. The Journal of Pediatrics, 166, 1062–1069. doi:10.1016/j.peds.2014.12.059.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., & Goossens, L. (2014). Experiencing loneliness in adolescence: A matter of individual characteristics, negative peer experiences, or both? Social Development, 23, 100–118. doi:10.1111/sode.12019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, K., Danielson, C., McCauley, J., Hanson, R., Smith, D., Resnick, H., … Kilpatrick, D. (2012). Longitudinal trajectories of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and binge drinking among adolescent girls: The role of sexual victimization. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 54–59. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.05.017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, G., & Schulz, R. (1992). Pain, activity restriction, and symptoms of depression among community-residing elderly adults. Journal of Gerontology, 47, P367-P372. doi:10.1093/geronj/47.6.P367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

This work was supported by the National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice (Grant Number 2010-IJ-CX-0008). The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect those of the Department of Justice.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Criminology & Criminal Justice, Arizona State University, 411 N. Central Avenue, Suite 600, Phoenix, AZ, 85004-0685, USA

    Michael D. Reisig & Kristy Holtfreter

  2. College of Criminology & Criminal Justice, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA

    Jillian J. Turanovic

Authors
  1. Michael D. Reisig
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kristy Holtfreter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jillian J. Turanovic
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael D. Reisig.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Reisig, M.D., Holtfreter, K. & Turanovic, J.J. Criminal Victimization, Depressive Symptoms, and Behavioral Avoidance Coping in Late Adulthood: The Conditioning Role of Strong Familial Ties. J Adult Dev 25, 13–24 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-017-9270-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-017-9270-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation