Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

How Do Parents React When Their Children Leave Home? An Integrative Review

  • Published:
Journal of Adult Development Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The empty nest, which refers to the phase of the family life cycle following the departure of children, has been associated with both positive and negative consequences for parents. This article aims to achieve a better understanding of the complex effects of this transition. It discusses available data and theoretical perspectives on the empty nest, from pioneering works until the most recent studies on the subject. It includes a discussion of conceptualization and methodological issues, as well as a review of determinants of nest leaving. The influence of the departure of children on their parents’ marital quality and psychological well-being, including the potential development of empty-nest syndrome, are then summarized. Studies examining other parental outcome, such as marital instability or relationships with adult children, are also reviewed. It ends with a discussion on boomerang kids and directions for future research. In particular, the need to study the empty-nest period with parents living in a variety of marital situations is acknowledged.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abas, M., Tangchonlatip, K., Punpuing, S., Jirapramukpitak, T., Darawuttimaprakorn, N., Prince, M., et al. (2013). Migration of children and impact on depression in older parents in rural Thailand, Southeast Asia. JAMA Psychiatry, 70, 226–234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adelmann, P. K., Chadwick, K., & Baerger, D. R. (1996). Marital quality of black and white adults over the life course. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13, 361–384.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahlborg, T., Misvaer, N., & Möller, A. (2009). Perception of marital quality by parents with small children: A follow-up study when the firstborn is 4 years old. Journal of Family Nursing, 15, 237–263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, S. A., Russell, C. S., & Schumm, W. R. (1983). Perceived marital quality and family life-cycle categories: A further analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 127–139.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aquilino, W. S. (1991). Predicting parents’ experiences with coresident adult children. Journal of Family Issues, 12, 323–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Axelson, L. J. (1960). Personal adjustment in the postparental period. Marriage and Family Living, 22, 66–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beaupré, P., Turcotte, P., & Milan, A. (2006). When is junior moving out? Transitions from the parental home to independence. Canadian Social Trends, 82, 9–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borland, D. C. (1982). A cohort analysis approach to the empty-nest syndrome among three ethnic groups of women: A theoretical position. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 44, 117–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bozett, F. W. (1985). Male development and fathering throughout the life cycle. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 41–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradbury, T. N., Fincham, F. D., & Beach, S. R. (2000). Research on the nature and determinants of marital satisfaction: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 964–980.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bumagin, V. E., & Hirn, K. F. (1982). Observations on changing relationships for older married women. American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 42, 133–142.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, M. L. (1985). Role conflict in the postparental period: The effects of employment status on the marital satisfaction of women. Research on Aging, 7, 433–454.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, D., Yang, X., & Aagard, S. D. (2012). The empty nest syndrome: Ways to enhance quality of life. Educational Gerontology, 38, 520–529.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cherlin, A. J., Scabini, E., & Rossi, G. (1997). Still in the nest: Delayed home leaving in Europe and the United States. Journal of Family Issues, 18, 572–575.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clemens, A. W., & Axelson, L. J. (1985). The not-so-empty-nest: The return of the fledgling adult. Family Relations, 34, 259–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cole, C. L., & Cole, A. L. (1999). Boundary ambiguities that bind former spouses together after the children leave home in post-divorce families. Family Relations, 48, 271–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Condie, S. J., & Doan, H. T. (1978). Role profit and marital satisfaction throughout the family life cycle. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 9, 257–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, K. L., & Gutmann, D. L. (1987). Gender identity and ego mastery style in middle-aged, pre-, and post-empty nest women. The Gerontologist, 27, 347–352.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, M. P., & Hooper, D. (1973). Menopause, ageing and family. Social Science and Medicine, 7, 469–482.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crowley, B. J., Hayslip, B., & Hobdy, J. (2003). Psychological hardiness and adjustment to life events in adulthood. Journal of Adult Development, 10, 237–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • D’Amore, S. (2009). Alcool et nid vide: Récit d’un travail thérapeutique avec un couple en crise de transition [Alcohol and empty nest: A case study of a couple in crisis]. Cahiers critiques de thérapie familiale et de pratiques de réseaux, 42, 231–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dare, J. S. (2011). Transitions in midlife women’s lives: Contemporary experiences. Health Care for Women International, 32, 111–133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dennerstein, L., Dudley, E., & Guthrie, J. (2002). Empty nest or revolving door? A prospective study of women’s quality of life in midlife during the phase of children leaving and re-entering the home. Psychological Medicine, 32, 545–550.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deutscher, I. (1964). The quality of postparental life: Definitions of the situation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 26, 52–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duvall, E. M., & Miller, B. C. (1985). Marriage and family development (6th ed.). New York: Harper and Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dykstra, P. A., & Keizer, R. (2009). The wellbeing of childless men and fathers in mid-life. Ageing and Society, 29, 1227–1242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, G. H. (1998). The life course and human development. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 1: Theoretical models of human development. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellicott, A. M. (1985). Psychosocial changes as a function of family-cycle phase. Human Development, 28, 270–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, J. J., Martinengo, G., & Hill, E. J. (2010). Putting work and family experiences in context: Differences by family life stage. Human Relations, 63, 955–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feeney, J., Peterson, C., & Noller, P. (1994). Equity and marital satisfaction over the family life cycle. Personal Relationships, 1, 83–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Finkel, J. S., & Hansen, F. J. (1992). Correlates of retrospective marital satisfaction in long-lived marriages: A social constructivist perspective. Family Therapy, 19, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glenn, N. D. (1975). Psychological well-being in the postparental stage: Some evidence from national surveys. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 37, 105–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gorchoff, S. M., John, O. P., & Helson, R. (2008). Contextualizing change in marital satisfaction during middle age. Psychological Science, 19, 1194–1200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutmann, D. L. (1985). The parental imperative revisited: Towards a developmental psychology of adulthood and later life. Contributions to Human Development, 14, 31–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagen, J. D., & DeVries, H. M. (2004). Marital satisfaction at the empty-nest phase of the family life cycle: A longitudinal study. Marriage and Family: A Christian Journal, 7, 83–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, T., Slagsvold, B., & Moum, T. (2009). Childlessness and psychological well-being in midlife and old age: An examination of parental status effects across a range of outcomes. Social Indicators Research, 94, 343–362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harkins, E. B. (1978). Effects of empty nest transition on self-report of psychological and physical well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 40, 549–556.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, R. L., Ellicott, A. M., & Holmes, D. S. (1986). The timing of psychosocial transitions and changes in women’s lives: An examination of women aged 45–60. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 409–416.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hershberger, B. (1982). Living in the freedom there is. Activities, Adaptation and Aging, 2, 51–58.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiedemann, B., Suhomlinova, O., & O’Rand, A. M. (1998). Economic independence, economic status, and empty nest in midlife marital disruption. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 219–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobdy, J., Hayslip, B., Kaminski, P. L., Crowley, B. J., Riggs, S., & York, C. (2007). The role of attachment style in coping with job loss and the empty nest in adulthood. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 65, 335–371.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holahan, C. K. (1984). Marital attitudes over 40 years: A longitudinal cohort analysis. Journal of Gerontology, 39, 49–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kapitus, C. A., & Johnson, M. P. (2003). The utility of family life cycle as a theoretical and empirical tool: Commitment and family life-cycle stage. Journal of Family Issues, 24, 155–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumagai, F. (2010). Forty years of family change in Japan: A society experiencing population aging and declining fertility. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 41, 581–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, M. E. (2004). Development in midlife. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 305–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leopold, T., Geissler, F., & Pink, S. (2012). How far do children move? Spatial distances after leaving the parental home. Social Science Research, 41, 991–1002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, R. A., & Duncan, S. F. (1991). How fathers respond when their youth leave and return home? Prevention in Human Services, 9, 223–234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippert, L. (1997). Women at midlife: Implications for theories of women’s adult development. Journal of Counseling and Development, 76, 16–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, L., & Guo, Q. (2007). Loneliness and health-related quality of life for the empty nest elderly in the rural area of a mountainous county in China. Quality of Life Research, 16, 1275–1280.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, L., & Guo, Q. (2008). Life satisfaction in a sample of empty-nest elderly: A survey in the rural area of a mountainous county in China. Quality of Life Research, 17, 823–830.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackey, R. A., & O’Brien, B. A. (1999). Adaptation in lasting marriages. Families in Society, 80, 587–596.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Major, D. A., & Germano, L. M. (2006). The changing nature of work and its impact on the work-home interface. In F. Jones, R. J. Burke, & M. Westman (Eds.), Work-life balance: A psychological perspective (pp. 13–38). New York: Psychology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFarland, C., Ross, M., & DeCourville, N. (1989). Women’s theories of menstruation and biases in recall of menstrual symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 522–531.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McQuaide, S. (1998). Women at midlife. Social Work, 43, 21–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Menaghan, E. (1983). Marital stress and family transitions: A panel analysis. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 45, 371–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, B. A., & Lovegreen, L. D. (2009). The empty nest syndrome in midlife families: A multimethod exploration of parental gender differences and cultural dynamics. Journal of Family Issues, 30, 1651–1670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neugarten, B. L. (1976). Adaptation and the life cycle. Counseling Psychologist, 6, 16–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nomaguchi, K. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2003). Costs and rewards of children: The effects of becoming a parent on adults’ lives. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 356–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pryor, J. (1999). Waiting until they leave home: The experiences of young adults whose parents separate. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 32, 47–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1980). Depression and the empty nest. Sex Roles, 6, 775–781.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raup, J. L., & Myers, J. E. (1989). The empty nest syndrome: Myth or reality? Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 180–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, J. L. (1979). Women and aging. The Counseling Psychologist, 8, 29–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers, R. H., & Witney, G. (1981). The family cycle in twentieth century Canada. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 43, 727–740.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, L. P., & Markides, K. S. (1989). Well-being in the postparental stage in Mexican-American women. Research on Aging, 11, 508–516.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rollins, B. C., & Cannon, K. L. (1974). Marital satisfaction over the family life cycle: A reevaluation. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 36, 271–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rollins, B. C., & Feldman, H. (1970). Marital satisfaction over the family life cycle. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 32, 20–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt, P. J., Murphy, J. H., Haq, N., Rubinow, D. R., & Danaceau, M. A. (2004). Stressful life events, personal losses, and perimenopause-related depression. Archives of Women’s Mental Health, 7, 19–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schnaiberg, A., & Goldenberg, S. (1989). From empty-nest to crowded nest: The dynamics of incompletely-launched young adults. Social Problems, 36, 251–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schram, R. W. (1979). Marital satisfaction over the family life cycle: A critique and proposal. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41, 7–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2006). Leaving home or still in the nest? Parent-child relationships and psychological health as predictors of different leaving home patterns. Developmental Psychology, 42, 864–876.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Settersten, R. A. (1998). A time to leave home and a time never to return? Age constraints on the living arrangements of young adults. Social Forces, 76, 1373–1400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sheriff, M., & Weatherall, A. (2009). A feminist discourse analysis of popular-press accounts of postmaternity. Feminist and Psychology, 19, 89–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su, D., Wu, X., Zhang, Y., Li, H., Wang, W., Zhang, J., et al. (2012). Depression and social support between China’ rural and urban empty-nest elderly. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 55, 564–569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, M. B. (1955). Activity patterns of post-parental couples and their relationship to family continuity. Marriage and Family Living, 17, 338–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tucker, P., & Aron, A. (1993). Passionate love and marital satisfaction at key transition points in the family life cycle. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12, 135–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Campbell, W. K., & Foster, C. A. (2003). Parenthood and marital satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 574–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Umberson, D., Pudrovska, T., & Reczek, C. (2010). Parenthood, childlessness, and well-being: A life course perspective. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 612–629.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Umberson, D., Williams, K., Powers, D. A., Chen, M. D., & Campbell, A. M. (2005). As good as it gets? A life course perspective on marital quality. Social Forces, 84, 493–511.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillant, C. O., & Vaillant, G. E. (1993). Is the U-curve of marital satisfaction an illusion? A 40-year study of marriage. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 230–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • VanLaningham, J., Johnson, D. R., & Amato, P. (2001). Marital happiness, marital duration, and the U-shaped curve: Evidence from a five-wave panel study. Social Forces, 78, 1313–1341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., & Zhao, X. (2011). Empty nest syndrome in China. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 58, 110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., & Zhao, X. (2012). Family functioning, social support, and quality of life for Chinese empty nest older people with depression. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27, 1204–1206.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward, R. A., & Spitze, G. D. (2007). Nestleaving and coresidence by young adult children: The role of family relations. Research on Aging, 29, 257–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, L. (1994). Coresidence and leaving home: Young adults and their parents. Annual Review of Sociology, 20, 81–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, L., & Edwards, J. N. (1990). Emptying the nest and parental well-being: An analysis of national panel data. American Sociological Review, 55, 235–242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, Y. C., & Leung, J. (2012). Long-term care in China: Issues and prospects. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 55, 570–586.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, Z., Sun, L., Sun, Y., Zhang, X., Tao, F., & Cui, G. (2010). Correlation between loneliness and social relationship among empty nest elderly in Anhui rural area, China. Aging and Mental Health, 14, 108–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xie, L., Zhang, J., Peng, F., & Jiao, N. (2010). Prevalence and related influencing factors of depressive symptoms for empty-nest elderly living in the rural area of YongZhou, China. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 50, 24–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, Université de Moncton, Moncton, NB, E1A 3E9, Canada

    Geneviève Bouchard

Authors
  1. Geneviève Bouchard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Geneviève Bouchard.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bouchard, G. How Do Parents React When Their Children Leave Home? An Integrative Review. J Adult Dev 21, 69–79 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-013-9180-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-013-9180-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation