Skip to main content
Top
Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1/2011

01-01-2011 | Original Paper

Failure is Not an Option: Risk-Taking is Moderated by Anxiety and Also by Cognitive Ability in Children and Adolescents Diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder

Auteurs: Mikle South, Julianne Dana, Sarah E. White, Michael J. Crowley

Gepubliceerd in: Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders | Uitgave 1/2011

Log in om toegang te krijgen
share
DELEN

Deel dit onderdeel of sectie (kopieer de link)

  • Optie A:
    Klik op de rechtermuisknop op de link en selecteer de optie “linkadres kopiëren”
  • Optie B:
    Deel de link per e-mail

Abstract

Understanding hetereogeneity in symptom expression across the autism spectrum disorders (ASD) is a major challenge for identifying causes and effective treatments. In 40 children and adolescents diagnosed with ASD and 37 IQ—and age-matched comparison participants (the TYP group), we found no differences in summary measures on an experimental risk-taking task. However, anxiety and IQ predicted risk-taking only in the ASD group. Risk-taking was correlated with behavioral inhibition in the ASD group and behavioral activation in the TYP group. We suggest that performance on the task was motivated by fear of failure in the ASD group and by sensitivity to reward in the TYP group. Behavioral markers of anxiety and cognitive ability may improve conceptualization of heterogeneity in ASD.
Voetnoten
1
If a participant (n = 8) had completed the WISC-IV within the previous three years, we substituted the WISC-IV Verbal Comprehension Index and Perceptual Reasoning Index for the WASI VIQ and PIQ, and the comparable General Abilities Index for the FSIQ.
 
Literatuur
go back to reference Amaral, D., Schumann, C., & Nordahl, C. (2008). Neuroanatomy of autism. Trends in Neurosciences, 31, 137–145.CrossRefPubMed Amaral, D., Schumann, C., & Nordahl, C. (2008). Neuroanatomy of autism. Trends in Neurosciences, 31, 137–145.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: Author. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: Author.
go back to reference Bachevalier, J., & Loveland, K. (2006). The orbitofrontal-amygdala circuit and self-regulation of social-emotional behavior in autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 97–117.CrossRefPubMed Bachevalier, J., & Loveland, K. (2006). The orbitofrontal-amygdala circuit and self-regulation of social-emotional behavior in autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 30, 97–117.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Bullmore, E. T., Wheelwright, S., Ashwin, C., & Williams, S. C. (2000). The amygdala theory of autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 355–364.CrossRefPubMed Baron-Cohen, S., Ring, H. A., Bullmore, E. T., Wheelwright, S., Ashwin, C., & Williams, S. C. (2000). The amygdala theory of autism. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 24, 355–364.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. (2005). The Iowa gambling task and the somatic marker hypothesis: Some questions and answers. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 159–162.CrossRefPubMed Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. (2005). The Iowa gambling task and the somatic marker hypothesis: Some questions and answers. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 159–162.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Bernier, R., Dawson, G., Panagiotides, H., & Webb, S. J. (2005). Individuals with autism spectrum disorder show normal responses to a fear potential startle paradigm. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 575–583.CrossRefPubMed Bernier, R., Dawson, G., Panagiotides, H., & Webb, S. J. (2005). Individuals with autism spectrum disorder show normal responses to a fear potential startle paradigm. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 575–583.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Birmaher, B., Brent, D. A., Chiappetta, L., Bridge, J., Monga, S., & Baugher, M. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): A replication study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1230–1236.CrossRefPubMed Birmaher, B., Brent, D. A., Chiappetta, L., Bridge, J., Monga, S., & Baugher, M. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): A replication study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1230–1236.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Blair, C., Peters, R., & Granger, D. (2004). Physiological and neuropsychological correlates of approach/withdrawal tendencies in preschool: Further examination of the behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system scales for young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 45, 113–124.CrossRefPubMed Blair, C., Peters, R., & Granger, D. (2004). Physiological and neuropsychological correlates of approach/withdrawal tendencies in preschool: Further examination of the behavioral inhibition system/behavioral activation system scales for young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 45, 113–124.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Bornovalova, M., Cashman-Rolls, A., O’Donnell, J., Ettinger, K., Richards, J., deWit, H., et al. (2009). Risk taking differences on a behavioral task as a function of potential reward/loss magnitude and individual differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 93, 258–262.CrossRef Bornovalova, M., Cashman-Rolls, A., O’Donnell, J., Ettinger, K., Richards, J., deWit, H., et al. (2009). Risk taking differences on a behavioral task as a function of potential reward/loss magnitude and individual differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 93, 258–262.CrossRef
go back to reference Cacciopo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. G. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cacciopo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. G. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
go back to reference Carlson, S., Zayas, V., & Guthormsen, A. (2009). Neural correlates of decision making on a gambling task. Child Development, 80, 1076–1096.CrossRefPubMed Carlson, S., Zayas, V., & Guthormsen, A. (2009). Neural correlates of decision making on a gambling task. Child Development, 80, 1076–1096.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Crone, E., & van der Molen, M. (2004). Developmental changes in real life decision making: Performance on a gambling task previously shown to depend on the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 251–279.CrossRefPubMed Crone, E., & van der Molen, M. (2004). Developmental changes in real life decision making: Performance on a gambling task previously shown to depend on the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 251–279.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Dalton, K., Nacewicz, B., Johnstone, T., Schaefer, H., Gernsbacher, M., Goldsmith, H., et al. (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 519–526.PubMed Dalton, K., Nacewicz, B., Johnstone, T., Schaefer, H., Gernsbacher, M., Goldsmith, H., et al. (2005). Gaze fixation and the neural circuitry of face processing in autism. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 519–526.PubMed
go back to reference Damasio, A. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 351, 1413–1420.CrossRefPubMed Damasio, A. (1996). The somatic marker hypothesis and the possible functions of the prefrontal cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 351, 1413–1420.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference De Martino, B., Harrison, N., Knafo, S., Bird, G., & Dolan, R. (2008). Explaining enhanced logical consistency during decision making in autism. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 10746–10750.CrossRefPubMed De Martino, B., Harrison, N., Knafo, S., Bird, G., & Dolan, R. (2008). Explaining enhanced logical consistency during decision making in autism. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 10746–10750.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Dolan, R. (2007). Keynote address: Revaluing the orbital prefrontal cortex. Linking affect to action: Critical contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex (pp. 1–9). Malden: Blackwell Publishing. Dolan, R. (2007). Keynote address: Revaluing the orbital prefrontal cortex. Linking affect to action: Critical contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex (pp. 1–9). Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
go back to reference Elliot, A., & Thrash, T. (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 804–818.CrossRefPubMed Elliot, A., & Thrash, T. (2002). Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 804–818.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Gaigg, S. B., & Bowler, D. M. (2007). Differential fear conditioning in Asperger’s syndrome: Implications for an amygdala theory of autism. Neuropsychologia, 45, 2125–2134.CrossRefPubMed Gaigg, S. B., & Bowler, D. M. (2007). Differential fear conditioning in Asperger’s syndrome: Implications for an amygdala theory of autism. Neuropsychologia, 45, 2125–2134.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Hubert, B. E., Wicker, B., Monfardini, E., & Deruelle, C. (2009). Electrodermal reactivity to emotion processing in adults with autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 13, 9–19.CrossRefPubMed Hubert, B. E., Wicker, B., Monfardini, E., & Deruelle, C. (2009). Electrodermal reactivity to emotion processing in adults with autistic spectrum disorders. Autism, 13, 9–19.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Johnson, S., Yechiam, E., Murphy, R., Queller, S., & Stout, J. (2006). Motivational processes and autonomic responsivity in Asperger’s disorder: Evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 12, 668–676.PubMed Johnson, S., Yechiam, E., Murphy, R., Queller, S., & Stout, J. (2006). Motivational processes and autonomic responsivity in Asperger’s disorder: Evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society: JINS, 12, 668–676.PubMed
go back to reference Joseph, R. M., Ehrman, K., McNally, R., & Keehn, B. (2008). Affective response to eye contact and face recognition ability in children with ASD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 947–955.CrossRefPubMed Joseph, R. M., Ehrman, K., McNally, R., & Keehn, B. (2008). Affective response to eye contact and face recognition ability in children with ASD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 947–955.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Koegel, R., & Mentis, M. (1985). Motivation in childhood autism: Can they or won’t they? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 185–191.CrossRefPubMed Koegel, R., & Mentis, M. (1985). Motivation in childhood autism: Can they or won’t they? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 185–191.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Larson, M., Kaufman, D., Schmalfuss, I., & Perlstein, W. (2007). Performance monitoring, error processing, and evaluative control following severe TBI. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 961–971.PubMed Larson, M., Kaufman, D., Schmalfuss, I., & Perlstein, W. (2007). Performance monitoring, error processing, and evaluative control following severe TBI. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13, 961–971.PubMed
go back to reference Lauriola, M., & Levin, I. (2001). Relating individual differences in attitude toward ambiguity to risky choices. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 14, 107–122.CrossRef Lauriola, M., & Levin, I. (2001). Relating individual differences in attitude toward ambiguity to risky choices. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 14, 107–122.CrossRef
go back to reference Lee, P., Yerys, B., Della Rosa, A., Foss-Feig, J., Barnes, K., James, J., et al. (2009). Functional connectivity of the inferior frontal cortex changes with age in children with autism spectrum disorders: A fcMRI study of response inhibition. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 1787–1794.CrossRefPubMed Lee, P., Yerys, B., Della Rosa, A., Foss-Feig, J., Barnes, K., James, J., et al. (2009). Functional connectivity of the inferior frontal cortex changes with age in children with autism spectrum disorders: A fcMRI study of response inhibition. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 1787–1794.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Lejuez, C., Read, J., Kahler, C., Richards, J., Ramsey, S., Stuart, G., et al. (2002). Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk taking: The balloon analogue risk task (BART). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 75–84.CrossRefPubMed Lejuez, C., Read, J., Kahler, C., Richards, J., Ramsey, S., Stuart, G., et al. (2002). Evaluation of a behavioral measure of risk taking: The balloon analogue risk task (BART). Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 75–84.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Leyfer, O. T., Folstein, S. E., Bacalman, S., Davis, N. O., Dinh, E., Morgan, J., et al. (2006). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: Interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 849–861.CrossRefPubMed Leyfer, O. T., Folstein, S. E., Bacalman, S., Davis, N. O., Dinh, E., Morgan, J., et al. (2006). Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: Interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 849–861.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 205–223.CrossRefPubMed Lord, C., Risi, S., Lambrecht, L., Cook, E. H., Leventhal, B. L., DiLavore, P., et al. (2000). The autism diagnostic observation schedule-generic: A standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 205–223.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Loveland, K., Bachevalier, J., Pearson, D., & Lane, D. (2008). Fronto-limbic functioning in children and adolescents with and without autism. Neuropsychologia, 46, 49–62.CrossRefPubMed Loveland, K., Bachevalier, J., Pearson, D., & Lane, D. (2008). Fronto-limbic functioning in children and adolescents with and without autism. Neuropsychologia, 46, 49–62.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Milad, M., & Rauch, S. (2007). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in anxiety disorders. Linking affect to action: Critical contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex (pp. 546–561). Malden: Blackwell. Milad, M., & Rauch, S. (2007). The role of the orbitofrontal cortex in anxiety disorders. Linking affect to action: Critical contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex (pp. 546–561). Malden: Blackwell.
go back to reference Minassian, A., Paulus, M., Lincoln, A., & Perry, W. (2007). Adults with autism show increased sensitivity to outcomes at low error rates during decision-making. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1279–1288.CrossRefPubMed Minassian, A., Paulus, M., Lincoln, A., & Perry, W. (2007). Adults with autism show increased sensitivity to outcomes at low error rates during decision-making. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1279–1288.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Minshew, N. J., & Williams, D. L. (2007). The new neurobiology of autism: Cortex, connectivity, and neuronal organization. Archives of Neurology, 64, 945–950.CrossRefPubMed Minshew, N. J., & Williams, D. L. (2007). The new neurobiology of autism: Cortex, connectivity, and neuronal organization. Archives of Neurology, 64, 945–950.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Paulus, M., Feinstein, J., Simmons, A., & Stein, M. (2004). Anterior cingulate activation in high trait anxious subjects is related to altered error processing during decision making. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 1179–1187.CrossRefPubMed Paulus, M., Feinstein, J., Simmons, A., & Stein, M. (2004). Anterior cingulate activation in high trait anxious subjects is related to altered error processing during decision making. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 1179–1187.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Pessoa, L. (2008). On the relationship between emotion and cognition. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 9, 148–158.CrossRefPubMed Pessoa, L. (2008). On the relationship between emotion and cognition. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 9, 148–158.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Quartz, S. (2009). Reason, emotion and decision-making: Risk and reward computation with feeling. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 209–215.CrossRefPubMed Quartz, S. (2009). Reason, emotion and decision-making: Risk and reward computation with feeling. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 209–215.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Rauch, S., Shin, L., & Wright, C. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of amygdala function in anxiety disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 985, 389–410.CrossRefPubMed Rauch, S., Shin, L., & Wright, C. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of amygdala function in anxiety disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 985, 389–410.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Rempel-Clower, N. (2007). Role of orbitofrontal cortex connections in emotion. Linking affect to action: Critical contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex (pp. 72–86). Malden: Blackwell. Rempel-Clower, N. (2007). Role of orbitofrontal cortex connections in emotion. Linking affect to action: Critical contributions of the orbitofrontal cortex (pp. 72–86). Malden: Blackwell.
go back to reference Rizzolatti, G., & Fabri-Destro, M. (2008). The mirror system and its role in social cognition. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18, 179–184.CrossRefPubMed Rizzolatti, G., & Fabri-Destro, M. (2008). The mirror system and its role in social cognition. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18, 179–184.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Schultz, R. T. (2005). Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of the amygdala and fusiform face area. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23, 125–141.CrossRefPubMed Schultz, R. T. (2005). Developmental deficits in social perception in autism: The role of the amygdala and fusiform face area. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 23, 125–141.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Smillie, L., Dalgleish, L., & Jackson, C. (2007). Distinguishing between learning and motivation in behavioral tests of the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 476–489.CrossRefPubMed Smillie, L., Dalgleish, L., & Jackson, C. (2007). Distinguishing between learning and motivation in behavioral tests of the reinforcement sensitivity theory of personality. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 476–489.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference South, M., Ozonoff, S., & Schultz, R. T. (2008a). Neurocognitive development in autism. In C. A. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 701–716). Cambridge, MA: MIT. South, M., Ozonoff, S., & Schultz, R. T. (2008a). Neurocognitive development in autism. In C. A. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (2nd ed., pp. 701–716). Cambridge, MA: MIT.
go back to reference South, M., Ozonoff, S., Suchy, Y., Kesner, R. P., McMahon, W. M., & Lainhart, J. E. (2008b). Intact emotion facilitation for nonsocial stimuli in autism: Is amygdala impairment in autism specific for social information? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 42–54.CrossRefPubMed South, M., Ozonoff, S., Suchy, Y., Kesner, R. P., McMahon, W. M., & Lainhart, J. E. (2008b). Intact emotion facilitation for nonsocial stimuli in autism: Is amygdala impairment in autism specific for social information? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 42–54.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference South, M., White, S. E., & Dana, J. (2010). It’s about time: Understanding fear conditioning depends on when you look at it in children and adolescents diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. (under review). South, M., White, S. E., & Dana, J. (2010). It’s about time: Understanding fear conditioning depends on when you look at it in children and adolescents diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. (under review).
go back to reference South, M., Wolf, J., & Herlihy, L. (2009). New directions: Translating clinical child neuroscience to practice. In M. C. Roberts & R. G. Steele (Eds.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (4th ed., pp. 737–754). New York: Guilford. South, M., Wolf, J., & Herlihy, L. (2009). New directions: Translating clinical child neuroscience to practice. In M. C. Roberts & R. G. Steele (Eds.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (4th ed., pp. 737–754). New York: Guilford.
go back to reference Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O’Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 80, 28–44.CrossRefPubMed Steinberg, L., Graham, S., O’Brien, L., Woolard, J., Cauffman, E., & Banich, M. (2009). Age differences in future orientation and delay discounting. Child Development, 80, 28–44.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Tottenham, N., Hare, T., & Casey, B. (2009). A developmental perspective on human amygdala function. The human amygdala (pp. 107–117). New York, NY US: Guilford Press. Tottenham, N., Hare, T., & Casey, B. (2009). A developmental perspective on human amygdala function. The human amygdala (pp. 107–117). New York, NY US: Guilford Press.
go back to reference Vlamings, P., Jonkman, L., Hoeksma, M., van Engeland, H., & Kemner, C. (2008). Reduced error monitoring in children with autism spectrum disorder: An ERP study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 399–406.CrossRefPubMed Vlamings, P., Jonkman, L., Hoeksma, M., van Engeland, H., & Kemner, C. (2008). Reduced error monitoring in children with autism spectrum disorder: An ERP study. European Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 399–406.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Waters, A. M., Henry, J., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Pine, D. S. (2010). Attentional bias towards angry faces in childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 158–164.CrossRefPubMed Waters, A. M., Henry, J., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., & Pine, D. S. (2010). Attentional bias towards angry faces in childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41, 158–164.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference White, T., Lejuez, C., & de Wit, H. (2007). Personality and gender differences in effects of d-amphetamine on risk taking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15, 599–609.CrossRefPubMed White, T., Lejuez, C., & de Wit, H. (2007). Personality and gender differences in effects of d-amphetamine on risk taking. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15, 599–609.CrossRefPubMed
go back to reference Zalla, T., Labruyere, N., & Georgieff, N. (2006). Goal-directed action representation in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 527–540.CrossRefPubMed Zalla, T., Labruyere, N., & Georgieff, N. (2006). Goal-directed action representation in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36, 527–540.CrossRefPubMed
Metagegevens
Titel
Failure is Not an Option: Risk-Taking is Moderated by Anxiety and Also by Cognitive Ability in Children and Adolescents Diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder
Auteurs
Mikle South
Julianne Dana
Sarah E. White
Michael J. Crowley
Publicatiedatum
01-01-2011
Uitgeverij
Springer US
Gepubliceerd in
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders / Uitgave 1/2011
Print ISSN: 0162-3257
Elektronisch ISSN: 1573-3432
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1021-z

Andere artikelen Uitgave 1/2011

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 1/2011 Naar de uitgave