Method
Design
Participants
Measures
Maternal national origin |
n
| Cronbach’s alphas | |
---|---|---|---|
Internalizing Problems | Externalizing Problems | ||
Dutch | 3190 | 0.763 | 0.751 |
European | 406 | 0.778 | 0.787 |
All non-Western | 1347 | 0.856 | 0.818 |
Non-Western subgroups: | |||
Antillean | 84 | 0.856 | 0.771 |
Cape Verdian | 110 | 0.858 | 0.756 |
Indonesian | 190 | 0.862 | 0.770 |
Moroccan | 164 | 0.841 | 0.850 |
Surinamese | 278 | 0.833 | 0.817 |
Turkish | 301 | 0.807 | 0.816 |
Other non-Western | 220 | 0.894 | 0.845 |
Statistical Analyses
n
| Dutch (n = 3190) | Other European (n = 406) | Non-Westernc (n = 1347) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Child characteristics
| ||||
Gender (% boys) | 4892 | 49.9 | 47.4 | 49.6 |
Age (months) | 4936 | 18.4 (1.1) | 18.4 (1.1) | 18.6 (1.2)a,b
|
Gestational age at birth (weeks) | 4942 | 40.0 (1.7) | 40.0 (1.7) | 39.7 (1.7)a,b
|
Birth weight (grams) | 4888 | 3511 (551) | 3474 (537) | 3336 (545)a,b
|
Children with CBCL borderline/clinical score: | ||||
Total Problems (%) | 4943 | 4.5 | 11.8a
| 18.9a,b
|
Internalizing Problems (%) | 4943 | 11.1 | 20.9a
| 31.9a,b
|
Externalizing Problems (%) | 4943 | 5.3 | 8.6a
| 10.4a
|
Maternal characteristics
| ||||
Educational level: high (%) | 2747 | 65.8 | 67.0 | 33.6a,b
|
mediate (%) | 1350 | 24.3 | 24.6 | 35.3a,b
|
low (%) | 769 | 9.9 | 8.4 | 31.0a,b
|
Family income: >2000 € (%) | 3249 | 86.3 | 78.1a
| 54.1a,b
|
1200–2000 € (%) | 660 | 10.3 | 14.8a
| 20.1a,b
|
<1200 € (%) | 483 | 3.4 | 7.1a
| 25.8a,b
|
Marital status (% single) | 4846 | 5.4 | 6.0 | 18.1a,b
|
Age (years) | 4943 | 32.1 (4.0) | 31.6 (4.4) | 29.4 (5.6)a,b
|
Parity (% nulli) | 4783 | 60.3 | 61.0 | 54.8a,b
|
Psychopathology symptoms (score) | 3965 | 0.18 (0.22) | 0.28 (0.35)a
| 0.39 (0.44)a,b
|
Smoking in pregnancy (% yes) | 4160 | 22.4 | 23.5 | 24.7 |
Immigration characteristics of mothers
| ||||
Generational status | ||||
Second generation (%) | 650 | 38.3 | 36.8 | |
First generation (%) | 1100 | 61.7 | 63.2 | |
Age at immigration of first generation | ||||
immigrantsd
| 381 | 10.3 | 28.0b
| |
0–15 years old (%) | 573 | 49.7 | 31.3b
| |
≥16 years old (%) | ||||
Dutch language skills | ||||
Good (%) | 814 | 49.7 | 51.2 | |
Reasonable (%) | 478 | 30.0 | 29.8 | |
Not good (%) | 309 | 20.3 | 19.0 | |
Cultural identity | ||||
“Feels part of …”
| ||||
Dutch culture (%) | 306 | 26.5 | 21.2b
| |
Dutch and own national culture (%) | 582 | 44.9 | 42.2b
| |
Own national culture (%) | 415 | 26.5 | 31.9b
| |
Neither Dutch nor own national culture (%) | 55 | 2.1 | 4.7b
| |
Feelings of acceptance | ||||
“Feels accepted by Dutch natives”
| ||||
Agree (%) | 740 | 74.4 | 54.2b
| |
Neither agree, nor disagree (%) | 354 | 18.9 | 31.1b
| |
Disagree (%) | 160 | 6.7 | 14.6b
|
Maternal national origin | Mean scores (standard deviations) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
n
| Total Problems | Internalizing Problems | Externalizing Problems | |
Dutch | 4.2 (3.5) | 10.0 (6.4) | ||
European | 3190 | 20.7 (13.1) | 5.6 (4.7)a
| 11.3 (7.1)a
|
Non-Western | 406 | 25.3 (16.4)a
| 7.1 (6.5)a,b
| 11.9 (7.3)a
|
1347 | 30.0 (19.4)a,b
| |||
Non-Western subgroups
c
| ||||
7.0 (6.9)a
| 13.2 (8.4)a
| |||
Antillean | 84 | 31.8 (21.9)a
| 7.9 (5.7)a
| 14.7 (7.6)a
|
Cape Verdian | 110 | 35.4 (18.9)a
| 4.6 (3.8) | 11.2 (6.6) |
Indonesian | 190 | 24.0 (14.2) | 7.6 (8.0)a
| 9.9 (7.4) |
Moroccan | 164 | 28.7 (22.8)a
| 5.5 (4.7)a
| 11.6 (7.1)a
|
Surinamese | 278 | 26.5 (16.6)a
| 9.2 (7.0)a
| 12.3 (7.0)a
|
Turkish | 301 | 34.2 (19.6)a
| 7.8 (7.4)a
| 12.1 (7.2)a
|
Other non-Western | 220 | 31.8 (20.7)a
|
Correlation coefficienta
| p-value | |
---|---|---|
Child characteristics (confounders)
| ||
Gender | −0.047 | 0.001 |
Age | 0.059 | <0.001 |
Gestational age at birth | −0.044 | 0.002 |
Birth weight | −0.087 | <0.001 |
Maternal characteristics (family risk factors)
| ||
Educational level | 0.154 | <0.001 |
Family income | 0.155 | <0.001 |
Marital status | −0.121 | <0.001 |
Age | −0.167 | <0.001 |
Parity | −0.052 | <0.001 |
Psychopathology symptoms | 0.295 | <0.001 |
Smoking in pregnancy | 0.057 | <0.001 |
Immigration characteristics of mothers
| ||
Generational status | −0.079 | 0.001 |
Age at immigration of first generation immigrants | 0.107 | <0.001 |
Dutch language skills | −0.150 | <0.001 |
Cultural identity | 0.144 | <0.001 |
Feelings of acceptance | 0.130 | <0.001 |
Variables in model | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Maternal national origin: | ||||
Dutch | 0 (reference) | 0 (reference) | 0 (reference) | 0 (reference) |
European | 4.6 (3.1, 6.2) | 4.6 (3.1, 6.2) | 4.4 (2.9, 6.0) | 3.8 (2.2, 5.3) |
Antillean | 11.1 (7.8, 14.4) | 10.7 (7.4, 14.0) | 6.5 (3.2, 9.9) | 6.1 (2.8, 9.4) |
Cape Verdian | 14.7 (11.8, 17.6) | 14.4 (11.5, 17.3) | 10.2 (7.2, 13.2) | 8.7 (5.7, 11.6) |
Indonesian | 3.3 (1.1, 5.5) | 3.1 (0.9, 5.3) | 3.1 (0.9, 5.3) | 2.7 (0.6, 4.9) |
Moroccan | 8.0 (5.6, 10.4) | 7.9 (5.5, 10.3) | 5.7 (3.2, 8.2) | 3.9 (1.5, 6.4) |
Surinamese | 5.8 (4.0, 7.7) | 5.4 (3.5, 7.2) | 2.5 (0.6, 4.5) | 1.9 (−0.1, 3.8) |
Turkish | 13.4 (11.6, 15.2) | 13.2 (11.4, 15.0) | 10.8 (8.9, 12.7) | 9.2 (7.3, 11.1) |
Other non-Western | 11.0 (9.0, 13.2) | 10.8 (8.7, 12.9) | 9.4 (7.3, 11.5) | 8.8 (6.8, 10.9) |
Gender: boy | 1.5 (0.6, 2.3) | 1.5 (0.6, 2.3) | 1.4 (0.5, 2.2) | |
Age child (per year) | 0.5 (0.1, 0.9) | 0.5 (0.1, 0.9) | 0.4 (0.1, 0.8) | |
Gestational age (per week) | −0.2 (−0.5, 0.01) | −0.2 (−0.4, 0.1) | −0.2 (−0.4, 0.1) | |
Birth weight (per gram) | −0.1 (−0.1, 0.01) | 0.0 (−0.01, 0.000) | 0.0 (−0.01, 0.00) | |
Parity: nulliparity | 1.4 (0.5, 2.3) | 1.3 (0.4, 2.2) | ||
Maternal age (per year) | −0.2 (−0.3, −0.1) | −0.2 (−0.3, −0.1) | ||
Marital status: single | 3.8 (2.1, 5.5) | 3.4 (1.7, 5.1) | ||
Education mother: | ||||
high | 0 (reference) | 0 (reference) | ||
mediate | 1.0 (−0.02, 2.1) | 0.8 (−0.2, 1.8) | ||
low | 2.5 (1.1, 3.9) | 2.4 (1.0, 3.7) | ||
Family income: | ||||
>2000 | 0 (reference) | 0 (reference) | ||
1200–2000 | 0.08 (−1.2, 1.4) | −0.5 (−1.8, 0.8) | ||
<1200 | 3.0 (1.3, 4.7) | 1.8 (0.07, 3.4) | ||
Smoking in pregnancy: | ||||
yes | 0.3 (−0.7, 1.4) | −0.4 (−1.4, 0.7) | ||
Maternal | ||||
psychopathology | ||||
(per score point) | 9.7 (8.2, 11.2) | |||
R
2
| 0.085 | 0.092 | 0.115 | 0.143 |
R
2
changed | 0.085 | 0.007 | 0.024 | 0.028 |
F change | 56.7* | 8.8* | 16.3* | 158.1* |
Maternal immigration characteristics | Mean Total Problems score (standard deviation) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
European (n = 406) |
R
2
| Non-Western (n = 1347) |
R
2
| |
Generational status: Second | 24.0 (16.3) | 0.005 | 27.8 (17.2) | 0.008 |
First | 26.2 (16.5) | 31.4 (20.5)** | ||
Age at immigrationa: 0–15 years old | 22.2 (15.7) | 0.016 | 28.4 (19.0) | 0.017 |
≥ 16 years old | 27.7 (16.8) | 33.2 (19.5)** | ||
Dutch language skills: Good | 23.7 (16.1) | 0.012 | 26.6 (16.7) | 0.032 |
Reasonable | 27.0 (16.7) | 31.9 (19.7)*** | ||
Not good | 27.5 (17.3) | 34.9 (21.8)*** | ||
Cultural identity: | ||||
“Feels part of …”
| 0.045 | 0.033 | ||
Dutch culture | 22.1 (15.2) | 28.6 (18.3) | ||
Dutch and own national culture | 25.5 (16.0) | 26.5 (16.0) | ||
Own national culture | 27.3 (16.8) | 33.9 (21.2)** | ||
Neither Dutch nor own national culture | 44.9 (17.5)* | 35.4 (20.4)* | ||
Feelings of acceptance: | ||||
“Feels accepted by Dutch natives”
| 0.018 | 0.017 | ||
Agree | 24.6 (15.6) | 27.5 (17.7) | ||
Neither agree, nor disagree | 27.5 (16.2) | 32.7 (19.0)*** | ||
Disagree | 32.6 (20.5) | 31.6 (20.3)* |