Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Attachment in the Classroom

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Attachment influences students’ school success. This is true of students’ attachment to their parents, as well as to their teachers. Secure attachment is associated with higher grades and standardized test scores compared to insecure attachment. Secure attachment is also associated with greater emotional regulation, social competence, and willingness to take on challenges, and with lower levels of ADHD and delinquency, each of which in turn is associated with higher achievement. These effects tend to be stronger for high-risk students. In this era of accountability, enhancing teacher–student relationships is not merely an add-on, but rather is fundamental to raising achievement. Understanding the role of attachment in the classroom will help educators be more effective, particularly with challenging students. Twelve suggestions to improve teacher–student relationships and school bonding are provided.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1973). The development of infant–mother attachment. In B. Caldwell & H. Ricciuti (Eds.), Review of child development research (Vol. 3, pp. 1–94). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. The American Psychologist, 34(10), 932–937. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J., & Land, D. (1999). Attachment in adolescence. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 319–335). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J., Moore, C., Kuperminc, G., & Bell, K. (1998). Attachment and adolescent psychosocial functioning. Child Development, 69(5), 1406–1419. doi:10.2307/1132274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J., McElhaney, K., Land, D., Kuperminc, G., Moore, C., O’Beirne-Kelly, H., et al. (2003). A secure base in adolescence: Markers of attachment security in the mother–adolescent relationship. Child Development, 74(1), 292–307. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.t01-1-00536.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, J., Porter, M., McFarland, C., McElhaney, K. B., & Marsh, P. (2007). The relation of attachment security to adolescents’ paternal and peer relationships, depression, and externalizing behavior. Child Development, 78(4), 1222–1239. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01062.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anan, R., & Barnett, D. (1999). Perceived social support mediates between prior attachment and subsequent adjustment: A study of urban African American children. Developmental Psychology, 35(5), 1210–1222. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.5.1210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anders, S., & Tucker, J. (2000). Adult attachment style, interpersonal communication competence, and social support. Personal Relationships, 7, 379–389. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2000.tb00023.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ansbach, U., & Epstein, A. (2000, Summer). Helping children and families in need: Using a primary bonding model in a shelter child care setting. High Scope Resource, 4–8.

  • Arsenio, W. F., Cooperman, S., & Lover, A. (2000). Affective predictors of preschoolers’ aggression and peer acceptance: Direct and indirect effects. Developmental Psychology, 36(4), 438–448. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.4.438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aviezer, O., Sagi, A., Resnick, G., & Gini, M. (2002). School competence in young adolescence: Links to early attachment relationships beyond concurrent self-perceived competence and representations of relationships. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(5), 387–409. doi:10.1080/01650250143000328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., van IJzendoorn, M., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 195–215. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, D., Kidwell, S., & Leung, K. H. (1998). Parenting and preschooler attachment among low-income urban African American families. Child Development, 69(6), 1657–1671.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, M. Y., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behavior: Helping when it costs you. Psychological Science, 17(4), 319–325. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01705.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Behrens, K. Y., Hesse, E., & Main, M. (2007). Mothers’ attachment status as determined by the adult attachment interview predicts their 6-year-olds’ reunion responses: A study conducted in Japan. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1553–1567. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beishuizzen, J., Hof, E., van Putten, C., Bouwmeeser, S., & Asscher, J. (2001). Students’ and teachers’ cognitions about good teachers. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 185–201. doi:10.1348/000709901158451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergin, C. A. (1987). Prosocial development in toddlers: The patterning of mother–infant interactions. In M. E. Ford & D. H. Ford (Eds.), Humans as self-constructing living systems: Putting the framework to work (pp. 121–143). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergin, D. A. (2008). Mr. Webb’s zoology class: How one teacher motivated and transformed high school students. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), The ones we remember: Scholars reflect on teachers who made a difference (pp. 77–86). Charlotte: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergin, C. A., & Bergin, D. A. (1999). Classroom discipline that promotes self-control. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 20, 189–206. doi:10.1016/S0193-3973(99)00013-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bergin, C. A., & McCullough, P. (2009). Insecure attachment in drug-exposed toddlers: Caregiving or exposure? Infant Mental Health Journal, in press.

  • Bernier, A., & Meins, E. (2008). A threshold approach to understanding the origins of attachment disorganization. Developmental Psychology, 44(4), 969–982. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.969.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bettis, P. J., & Adams, N. G. (2003). The power of the preps and a cheerleading equity policy. Sociology of Education, 76, 128–142. doi:10.2307/3090273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Birch, S., & Ladd, G. (1997). The teacher–child relationship and children’s early school adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 35(1), 61–79. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(96)00029-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C. (2001). The early identification of risk for grade retention among African American children at risk for school difficulty. Applied Developmental Science, 5, 37–50. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS0501_4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bokhorst, C., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., Fearon, P., van IJzendoorn, M., Fonagy, P., & Schuengel, C. (2003). The importance of shared environment in mother-infant attachment security: A behavioral genetic study. Child Development, 74(6), 1769–1782. doi:10.1046/j.1467-8624.2003.00637.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment (vol. I). New York: Basic.

  • Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: vol. 2. Separation, anxiety and anger. New York: Basic.

  • Braungart-Reiker, J. M., Garwood, M. M., Powers, B. P., & Wang, X. (2001). Parental sensitivity, infant affect, and affect regulation: Predictors of later attachment. Child Development, 72(1), 252–270. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. (1999). Internal working models in attachment relationships: A construct revisited. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 89–111). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bub, K., McCartney, K., & Willett, J. B. (2007). Behavior problems trajectories and first-grade cognitive ability and achievement skills: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 653–670. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhs, E., & Ladd, G. W. (2001). Peer rejection as an antecedent of young children’s school adjustment: An examination of mediating processes. Developmental Psychology, 37(4), 550–560. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.550.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burchinal, M. R., Roberts, J. E., Zeisel, S. A., & Rowley, S. (2008). Social risk and protective factors for African American children’s academic achievement and adjustment during the transition to middle school. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 286–292. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bus, A. G., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1988a). Attachment and early reading: A longitudinal study. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 149(2), 199–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bus, A. G., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1988b). Mother–child interactions, attachment, and emergent literacy: A cross-sectional study. Child Development, 59, 1262–1272. doi:10.2307/1130489.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bus, A. G., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Affective dimension of mother–infant picturebook reading. Journal of School Psychology, 35(1), 47–60. doi:10.1016/S0022-4405(96)00030-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bus, A. G., Belsky, J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Crnic, K. (1997). Attachment and bookreading patterns: A study of mothers, fathers, and their toddlers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 81–98. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(97)90044-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69(4), 1107–1128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald, K. (1989). Disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships in maltreated infants. Developmental Psychology, 25(4), 525–531. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.4.525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotion regulation: Influences of attachment relationships. In N. A. Fox (Ed.), Emotion regulation: Behavioral and biological considerations. Monographs for the Society for Research in Child Development (pp. 228–249). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christenson, S., & Thurlow, M. (2004). School dropouts: Prevention, considerations, interventions, and challenges. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–39. doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01301010.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, K., & Ladd, G. (2000). Connectedness and autonomy support in parent–child relationships: Links to children’s socioemotional orientation and peer relationships. Developmental Psychology, 36(4), 485–498. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.4.485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, L., Ungerer, J., Chahoud, K., Johnson, S., & Stiefel, I. (2002). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is associated with attachment insecurity. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 7(2), 1359–1045. doi:10.1177/1359104502007002006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, D. A. (1990). Child-mother attachment of six-year-olds and social competence at school. Child Development, 61, 152–162. doi:10.2307/1131055.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelius-White, J. (2007). Learner-centered teacher–student relationships are effective: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 113–143. doi:10.3102/003465430298563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crittenden, P. M. (1992). Quality of attachment in the preschool years. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 209–241. doi:10.1017/S0954579400000110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, H. (2003). Conceptualizing the role and influence of student–teacher relationships on children’s social and cognitive development. Educational Psychologist, 38(4), 207–234. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3804_2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Wolff, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68(4), 571–591. doi:10.2307/1132107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeMulder, E., Denham, S., Schmidt, M., & Mitchell, J. (2000). Q-sort assessment of attachment security during the preschool years: Links from home to school. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 274–282. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.274.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denham, S. A., McKinley, M., Couchoud, E. A., & Holt, R. (1990). Emotional and behavioral predictors of preschool peer ratings. Child Development, 61, 1145–1152. doi:10.2307/1130882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Denham, S. A., Blair, K., DeMulder, E., Levitas, J., Sawyer, K., Auerbach-Major, S., et al. (2003). Preschool emotional competence: Pathway to social competence? Child Development, 74(1), 238–256. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dishion, T. J., Patterson, G., Stoolmiller, M., & Skinner, M. (1991). Family, school, and behavioral antecedents to early adolescent involvement with antisocial peers. Developmental Psychology, 27(1), 172–180. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.27.1.172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C., Reuman, M., Flanagan, C., et al. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. The American Psychologist, 48, 90–101. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.48.2.90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Egeland, B., Pianta, R., & O’Brien, M. (1993). Maternal intrusiveness in infancy and child maladaptation in the early school years. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 359–370. doi:10.1017/S0954579400004466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B., Maszk, P., Smith, M., & Karbon, M. (1995). The role of emotionality and regulation in children’s social functioning: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 66, 1360–1384. doi:10.2307/1131652.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Murphy, B. C., Guthrie, I. K., Jones, S., et al. (1997). Contemporaneous and longitudinal prediction of children’s social functioning from regulation and emotionality. Child Development, 68(4), 642–664. doi:10.2307/1132116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esposito, C. (2000). Learning in urban blight: School climate and its effect on the school performance of urban, minority, low-income children. School Psychology Review, 28, 365–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felner, R. D., Seitsinger, A. M., Brand, S., Burns, A., & Bolton, N. (2007). Creating small learning communities: Lessons from the Project on High-Performing Learning Communities about “what works” in creating productive, developmentally enhancing, learning contexts. Educational Psychologist, 42(4), 209–221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fincham, F., Hokoda, A., & Sanders, R. (1989). Learned helplessness, test anxiety, and academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis. Child Development, 60, 138–145. doi:10.2307/1131079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraley, C., & Spieker, S. (2003). Are infant attachment patterns continuously or categorically distributed? A taxometric analysis of strange situation behavior. Developmental Psychology, 39(3), 387–404. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.39.3.387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frankel, D., & Bates, J. (1990). Mother–toddler problem solving: Antecedents in attachment, home behavior, and temperament. Child Development, 61, 810–819. doi:10.2307/1130965.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • French, D., & Conrad, J. (2001). School dropout as predicted by peer rejection and antisocial behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11(3), 225–244. doi:10.1111/1532-7795.00011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldwyn, R., Stanley, C., Smith, V., & Green, J. (2000). The Manchester Child Attachment Story Task: Relationship with parental AAI, SAT and child behaviour. Attachment & Human Development, 2(1), 71–84. doi:10.1080/146167300361327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goossens, F. A., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1990). Quality of infants’ attachment to professional caregivers: Relation to infant–parent attachment and day-care characteristics. Child Development, 61, 832–837. doi:10.2307/1130967.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grabill, C., & Kerns, K. (2000). Attachment style and intimacy in friendships. Personal Relationships, 7, 363–378. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2000.tb00022.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granot, D., & Mayseless, O. (2001). Attachment security and adjustment to school in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25(6), 530–541. doi:10.1080/01650250042000366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, A., & Ripski, M. B. (2008). Adolescent trust in teachers: Implications for behavior in the high school classroom. School Psychology Review, 37(3), 337–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossmann, K. E., & Grossmann, K. (1991). Attachment quality as an organizer of emotional and behavioral responses in a longitudinal perspective. In C. M. Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde & P. Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle (pp. 93–114). London: Tavistock/Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar, M. R., Brodersen, L., Krueger, K., & Rigatuso, J. (1996). Dampening of adrenocortical responses during infancy: Normative change and individual differences. Child Development, 67, 877–889. doi:10.2307/1131867.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurland, S., & Grolnick, W. (2003). Children’s expectancies and perceptions of adults: Effects on rapport. Child Development, 74(4), 1212–1224. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hamre, B., & Pianta, R. (2001). Early teacher–child relationships and the trajectory of children’s school outcomes through eighth grade. Child Development, 72(2), 625–638. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardman, E. L., & Smith, S. W. (2003). An analysis of discipline-related content in elementary education journals. Behavioral Disorders, 28, 173–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hesse, E. (1999). The adult attachment interview: Historical and current perspectives. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 395–433). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodges, E., Finnegan, R., & Perry, D. (1999). Skewed autonomy-relatedness in preadolescents’ conceptions of their relationships with mother, father, and best friend. Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 737–748. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.3.737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horn, W., & Packard, T. (1985). Early identification of learning problems: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(5), 597–607. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.77.5.597.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C. (1999). Attachment relationships in the context of multiple caregivers. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 671–687). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., & Hamilton, C. E. (1992a). Children’s relationships with caregivers: Mothers and child care teachers. Child Development, 63, 859–866. doi:10.2307/1131238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., & Hamilton, C. E. (1992b). Children’s relationships with child care teachers: Stability and concordance with parental attachments. Child Development, 63, 867–878. doi:10.2307/1131239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., & Ritchie, S. (1998). Changes in child–teacher relationships in a therapeutic preschool program. Early Education and Development, 9(4), 411–422. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed0904_6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., & Ritchie, S. (1999). Attachment organizations in children with difficult life circumstances. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 251–268. doi:10.1017/S0954579499002047.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., & Smith, E. (1995). Relations among child care quality, teacher behavior, children’s play activities, emotional security, and cognitive activity in child care. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 10, 381–404. doi:10.1016/0885-2006(95)90013-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., Rodning, C., Galluzzo, D., & Myers, L. (1988). Attachment and child care: Relationships with mother and caregiver. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 403–416. doi:10.1016/0885-2006(88)90037-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., Galinsky, E., & Kontos, S. (1998a). Child care caregiver sensitivity and attachment. Social Development, 7, 25–36. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00048.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Howes, C., Hamilton, C., & Philipsen, L. (1998b). Stability and continuity of child–caregiver and child–peer relationships. Child Development, 69(2), 418–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, J. N., Luo, W., Kwok, O.-M., & Loyd, L. K. (2008). Teacher–student support, effortful engagement, and achievement: A 3-year longitudinal study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 1–14. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunsley, J. (1987). Internal dialogue during academic examinations. Cognitive Therapy and Research (Dec.).

  • Hymel, S., Vaillancourt, T., McDougall, P., & Renshaw, P. (2002). Peer acceptance and rejection in childhood. In P. Smith & C. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp. 265–284). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ialongo, N., Edelsohn, G., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Crockett, L., & Kellam, S. (1994). The significance of self-reported anxious symptoms in first-grade children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22(4), 441–445. doi:10.1007/BF02168084.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 995–1006. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.995.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen, T., & Hofmann, V. (1997). Children’s attachment representations: Longitudinal relations to school behavior and academic competency in middle childhood and adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 33(4), 703–710. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.4.703.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, K. C., & Rowe, D. (1999). Genetic and environmental influences on the relationships between family connectedness, school connectedness, and adolescent depressed mood: Sex differences. Developmental Psychology, 35(4), 926–939. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.4.926.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, M. K., Crosnoe, R., & Elder, G. H. (2001). Students’ attachment and academic engagement: The role of race and ethnicity. Sociology of Education, 74 (October), 318-340. doi:10.2307/2673138.

  • Johnson, S. C., Dweck, C. S., & Chen, F. S. (2007). Evidence for infants’ internal working models of attachment. Psychological Science, 18(6), 501–502. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01929.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, S., Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & MacKinnon, D. (2002). Parents’ reactions to elementary school children’s negative emotions: Relations to social and emotional functioning at school. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 48(2), 133–159. doi:10.1353/mpq.2002.0007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juvonen, J. (2007). Reforming middle schools: Focus on continuity, social connectedness, and engagement. Educational Psychologist, 42(4), 197–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, I., & Assor, A. (2007). When choice motivates and when it does not. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 429–442. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9027-y.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerns, K., Tomich, P., Aspelmeier, J., & Contreras, J. (2000). Attachment-based assessments of parent–child relationships in middle childhood. Developmental Psychology, 36(5), 614–626. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.5.614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kerr, M., & Stattin, H. (2000). What parents know, how they know it, and several forms of adolescent adjustment: Further support for a reinterpretation of monitoring. Developmental Psychology, 36, 366–380. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.3.366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kobak, R., Cole, H., Ferenz-Gillies, R., Fleming, W., & Gamble, W. (1993). Attachment and emotion regulation during mother-teen problem solving: A control theory analysis. Child Development, 64(1), 231–245. doi:10.2307/1131448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kontos, S., Howes, C., Shinn, B., & Galinsky, E. (1995). Quality in family childcare and relative care. New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koren-Karie, N., Oppenheim, D., Dolev, S., Sher, E., & Etzion-Carasso, A. (2002). Mothers’ insightfulness regarding their infants’ internal experience: Relations with maternal sensitivity and infant attachment. Developmental Psychology, 38(4), 534–542. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.534.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krevans, J., & Gibbs, J. C. (1996). Parents’ use of inductive discipline: Relations to children’s empathy and prosocial behavior. Child Development, 67(6), 3263–3277. doi:10.2307/1131778.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., & Burgess, K. (2001). Do relational risks and protective factors moderate the linkages between childhood aggression and early psychological and school adjustment? Child Development, 72(5), 1579–1601. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., Buhs, E., & Seid, M. (2000). Children’s initial sentiments about kindergarten: Is school liking an antecedent of early classroom participation and achievement? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46(2), 255–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaFreniere, P., Provost, M., & Dubeau, D. (1992). From an insecure base: Parent–child relations and internalizing behavior in the preschool. Early Development and Parenting, 1(3), 137–148. doi:10.1002/edp.2430010303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laible, D., & Thompson, R. (2000). Mother–child discourse, attachment security, shared positive affect, and early conscience development. Child Development, 71(5), 1424–1440. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larose, S., Bernier, A., & Tarabulsy, G. (2005). Attachment state of mind, learning dispositions, and academic performance during the college transition. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 281–289. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.281.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Learner, D., & Kruger, L. (1997). Attachment, self-concept, and academic motivation in high-school students. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67(3), 485–492. doi:10.1037/h0080249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M., Feiring, C., & Rosenthal, S. (2000). Attachment over time. Child Development, 71(3), 707–720. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1992). Maltreated children’s reports of relatedness to their teachers. In R. Pianta (Ed.), Beyond the parent: The role of other adults in children’s lives (pp. 81–107). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 520–554). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D. B., Grunebaum, H. U., & Botein, S. (1990). Infants at social risk: Maternal depression and family support services as mediators of infant development and security of attachment. Child Development, 61, 85–98. doi:10.2307/1131049.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., Alpern, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993). Disorganized infant attachment classification and maternal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-aggressive behavior in the preschool classroom. Child Development, 64, 572–585. doi:10.2307/1131270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, J. L., & Cairns, R. (1997). Do extracurricular activities protect against early school dropout? Developmental Psychology, 33(2), 241–253. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.2.241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahoney, J. L., Harris, A. L., & Eccles, J. S. (2006). Organized activity participation, positive youth development, and the over-scheduling hypothesis. Social Policy Report, 20(4), 3–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maier, S. F., & Watkins, L. R. (2000). The immune system as a sensory system: Implications for psychology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3), 98–102. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00069.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Main, M. (1983). Exploration, play, and cognitive functioning related to infant–mother attachment. Infant Behavior and Development, 6, 167–174. doi:10.1016/S0163-6383(83)80024-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Main, M. (1999). Attachment theory: Eighteen points with suggestions for future studies. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 845–887). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Main, M., & Cassidy, J. (1988). Categories of response to reunion with the parent at age 6: Predictable from infant attachment classifications and stable over a 1-month period. Developmental Psychology, 24, 415–426. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.24.3.415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malecki, C., & Elliot, S. (2002). Children’s social behaviors as predictors of academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis. School Psychology Quarterly, 17(1), 1–23. doi:10.1521/scpq.17.1.1.19902.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., & Cheng, J. H. S. (2008). A multilevel perspective on gender in classroom motivation and climate: Potential benefits of male teachers for boys? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(1), 78–95. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mashburn, A. J., Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B., Downer, J. T., Barbarin, O. A., Bryant, D., et al. (2008). Measures of classroom quality in prekindergarten and children’s development of academic, language, and social skills. Child Development, 79(3), 732–749. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01154.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A., Roisman, G., Long, J., Burt, K., Obradovic, J., Riley, J., et al. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41(5), 733–746. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.733.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCullough, M. D., Kimeldorf, M. B., & Cohen, A. D. (2008). An adaptation for altruism? The social causes, social effects, and social evolution of gratitude. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17(4), 281–285. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00590.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDowell, D., O’Neil, R., & Parke, R. D. (2000). Display rule application in a disappointing situation and children’s emotional reactivity: Relations with social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 46, 306–324.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNeely, C., Nonnemaker, J., & Blum, R. (2002). Promoting school connectedness: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The Journal of School Health, 72(4), 138–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, S., & Stipek, D. (2006). Contemporaneous and longitudinal associations between social behavior and literacy achievement in a sample of low-income elementary school children. Child Development, 77(1), 103–117. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00859.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, R. S. L., & Grusec, J. E. (1989). Cognitive, affective, and behavioral consequences of praising altruism. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 35(3), 299–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell-Copeland, J., Denham, S., & DeMulder, E. (1997). Q-sort assessment of child–teacher attachment relationships and social competence in the preschool. Early Education and Development, 8(1), 27–39. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed0801_3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moss, E., & St-Laurent, D. (2001). Attachment at school age and academic performance. Developmental Psychology, 37(6), 863–874. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.6.863.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moss, E., Rousseau, D., Parent, S., St-Laurent, D., & Saintonge, J. (1998). Correlates of attachment at school-age: Maternal-reported stress, mother–child interaction and behavior problems. Child Development, 69, 1390–1405. doi:10.2307/1132273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mouton, S., Hawkins, J., McPherson, R., & Copley, J. (1996). School attachment: Perspectives of low-attached high school students. Educational Psychology, 16(3), 297–304. doi:10.1080/0144341960160306.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mussen, P., & Eisenberg, N. (2001). Prosocial development in context. In A. Bohart & D. Stipek (Eds.), Constructive and destructive behavior: Implications for family, school, and society (pp. 103–126). Washington D.C.: APA.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network (2002). The relation of global first-grade environment to structural classroom features and teach and student behaviors. The Elementary School Journal, 102, 367–387. doi:10.1086/499709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (1997). The effects of infant child care on infant–mother attachment security: Results of the NICHD study of early child care. Child Development, 68(5), 860–879.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2002). The relation of global first-grade environment to structural classroom features and teacher and student behaviors. The Elementary School Journal, 102, 367–387. doi:10.1086/499709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • NICHD Early Child Care Research Network (2006). Infant–mother attachment classification: Risk and protection in relation to changing maternal caregiving quality. Developmental Psychology, 42(1), 38–58. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.1.38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Noddings, N. (1992). The challenge to care in schools: An alternative approach to education. New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, E., & McCartney, K. (2007). Examining teacher–child relationships and achievement as part of an ecological model of development. American Educational Research Journal, 44(2), 340–369. doi:10.3102/0002831207302172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osterman, K. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 323–367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pajares, F., & Urdan, T. (eds). (2008). The ones we remember: Scholars reflect on teachers who made a difference. Charlotte: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, G. R., DeBaryshe, B., & Ramsey, E. (1989). A developmental perspective on antisocial behavior. The American Psychologist, 44, 329–355. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.2.329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pauli-Pott, U., Haverkock, A., Pott, W., & Beckmann, D. (2007). Negative emotionality, attachment quality, and behavior problems in early childhood. Infant Mental Health Journal, 28(1), 39–53. doi:10.1002/imhj.20121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulussen-Hoogeboom, M. C., Stams, G. J., Hermanns, J. M., & Peetsma, T. T. (2007). Child negative emotionality and parenting from infancy to preschool: A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 43(2), 438–453. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pederson, D., Gleason, K., Moran, G., & Bento, S. (1998). Maternal attachment representations, maternal sensitivity, and the infant–mother attachment relationship. Developmental Psychology, 34(5), 925–933. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.5.925.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perry, B. (1997). Incubated in terror: Neurodevelopmental factors in the “cycle of violence”. In J. Osofsky (Ed.), Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pianta, R. C. (1999). Enhancing relationships between children and teachers. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Pianta, R. C., & Harbers, K. (1996). Observing mother and child behavior in a problem-solving situation at school entry: Relations with academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 67, 307–322. doi:10.1016/0022-4405(96)00017-9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pianta, R. C., & Nimetz, S. (1991). Relationship between children and teachers: Associations with classroom and home behavior. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 12, 379–393. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(91)90007-Q.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pianta, R. C., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (1989). Continuity and discontinuity in maternal sensitivity at 6, 24, and 42 months in a high-risk sample. Child Development, 60, 481–487. doi:10.2307/1130992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pianta, R. C., Nimetz, S., & Bennett, E. (1997). Mother–child relationships, teacher–child relationships, and school outcomes in preschool and kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 12, 263–280. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(97)90003-X.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pianta, R. C., Belsky, J., Vandergrift, N., Houts, R. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2008). Classroom effects on children’s achievement trajectories in elementary school. American Educational Research Journal, 45(2), 365–397. doi:10.3102/0002831207308230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prior, M., Smart, D., Sanson, A., & Oberklaid, F. (1999). Relationships between learning difficulties and psychological problems in preadolescent children from a longitudinal sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(4), 429–436. doi:10.1097/00004583-199904000-00016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raikes, H. (1993). Relationship duration in infant care: Time with a high-ability teacher and infant–teacher attachment. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8, 309–325. doi:10.1016/S0885-2006(05)80070-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reeve, J., & Jang, H. (2006). What teachers say and do to support students’ autonomy during a learning activity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 209–218. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, M., Bearman, P., Blum, R., Bauman, K., Harris, K., Jones, J., et al. (1997). Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the National Longitudinal Study on Adolescent Health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278(10), 823–832. doi:10.1001/jama.278.10.823.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rubin, K. H., & Lollis, S. P. (1988). Origins and consequences of social withdrawal. In J. Belsky & T. Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attachment (pp. 219–252). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaps, E., Battistich, V., & Solomon, D. (2004). Community in school as key to student growth: Findings from the Child Development Project. In J. E. Zins, R. P. Weissberg, M. C. Wang & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Building academic success on social and emotional learning: What does the research say? (pp. 189–205). New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B., Atkinson, L., & Tardif, C. (2001). Child–parent attachment and children’s peer relations: A quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 37(1), 86–100. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.1.86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schore, A. (2000). Attachment and the regulation of the right brain. Attachment & Human Development, 2(1), 23–47. doi:10.1080/146167300361309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, S., Elicker, J., & Sroufe, L. A. (1994). Stages of friendship growth in preadolescence as related to attachment history. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 11, 341–361. doi:10.1177/0265407594113002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simmons, R., & Blyth, D. (1987). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and school context. Hawthorne: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (1989). Psychopathology as developmental deviation. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), The emergence of a discipline: Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology (pp. 30–40). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (1996). Emotional development: The organization of emotional life in the early years. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., Fox, N., & Pancake, V. (1983). Attachment and dependency in developmental perspective. Child Development, 54, 1615–1627. doi:10.2307/1129825.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A., Schork, E., Motti, F., Lawroski, N., & LaFrenier, P. (1984). The role of affect in social competence. In C. Izard, J. Kagan & R. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotions, cognition, and behavior (pp. 289–319). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson-Hinde, J., & Verschueren, K. (2002). Attachment in childhood. In P. Smith & C. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp. 182–204). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stright, A. D., Gallagher, K. C., & Kelley, K. (2008). Infant temperament moderates relationships between maternal parenting in early childhood and children’s adjustment in first grade. Child Development, 79(1), 186–200. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01119.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Talley, S., & Bergin, C.(1998, July). I’m the Robin Hood type: Prosocial behavior in preadolescent children. Paper presented at the Head Start Fourth National Research Conference, Washington D.C.

  • Tarabulsy, G. M., Bernier, A., Provost, M. A., Maranda, J., Larose, S., Moss, E., et al. (2005). Another look inside the gap: Ecological contributions to the transmission of attachment in a sample of adolescent mother–infant dyads. Developmental Psychology, 41(1), 212–234. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. A. (1991). Emotional regulation and emotional development. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 269–307. doi:10.1007/BF01319934.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. A., Flood, M. F., & Lundquist, L. (1995). Emotional regulation: Its relations to attachment and developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology: Emotion, cognition, and representation (Vol. 6, pp. 261–299). Rochester: University of Rochester Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Troy, M., & Sroufe, L. A. (1987). Victimization among preschoolers: Role of attachment relationship history. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 166–172. doi:10.1097/00004583-198703000-00007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trzesniewski, K., Moffitt, T., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., & Maughan, B. (2006). Revisiting the association between reading achievement and antisocial behavior: New evidence of an environmental explanation from a twin study. Child Development, 77(1), 72–88. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00857.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van IJzendoorn, M. H., Goldberg, S., Kroonenberg, P. M., & Frenkel, O. J. (1992). The relative effects of maternal and child problems on the quality of attachment: A meta-analysis of attachment in clinical samples. Child Development, 63, 840–858.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaughn, B. E., & Bost, K. (1999). Attachment and temperament: Redundant, independent, or interacting influences on interpersonal adaptation and personality development? In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook on attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications (pp. 198–225). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, M., Battistich, V., & Solomon, D. (1997). Enhancing student’s social and ethical development in school: An intervention program and its effects. International Journal of Educational Research, 27, 571–586. doi:10.1016/S0883-0355(97)00055-4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinfield, N. S., Sroufe, A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (1999). The nature of individual differences in infant–caregiver attachment. In J. Cassidy & P. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 68–88). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinfield, N. S., Sroufe, A., & Egeland, B. (2000). Attachment from infancy to early adulthood in a high-risk sample: Continuity, discontinuity, and their correlates. Child Development, 71(3), 695–702. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wentzel, K. R. (1993). Does being good make the grade? Social behavior and academic competence in middle school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 357–364. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.2.357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wentzel, K. R. (1997). Student motivation in middle school: The role of perceived pedagogical caring. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3), 411–419. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.3.411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitebook, N., Howes, C., & Phillips, D.(1989). The National Child Care Staffing Study: Who Cares? Child care teachers and the quality of care in America. Final Report of the National Child Care Staffing Study. Oakland, CA: Child Care Employee Project.

  • Zanobini, M., & Usai, C. (2002). Domain-specific self-concept and achievement motivation in the transition from primary to low middle school. Educational Psychology, 22(2), 203–217. doi:10.1080/01443410120115265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zettergren, P. (2003). School adjustment in adolescence for previously rejected, average and popular children. The British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 207–221. doi:10.1348/00070990360626949.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to David Bergin.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bergin, C., Bergin, D. Attachment in the Classroom. Educ Psychol Rev 21, 141–170 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-009-9104-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-009-9104-0

Keywords

Navigation