Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Exploring the Relationship Between Offending and Victimization: What is the Role of Risky Lifestyles and Low Self-Control? A Test in Two Urban Samples

  • Published:
European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study explores the strength of the relationship between offending and victimization among young adolescents. We focus especially on the role background characteristics such as gender, immigrant background and family structure and causal mechanisms such as risky lifestyles and low self-control as many scholars have argued that the correlation between offending and victimization may be caused by common characteristics of offenders and victims. The article build upon two large-scale self-reported delinquency studies in Sint-Niklaas (Belgium) and Halmstad (Sweden). The correlation between offending and victimization is strong, even when controlling for demographics, lifestyles and low self-control. However, the lifestyle and low self-control model predicts offending better than victimization and the independent effect of offending on victimization is larger than the independent effect of victimization of offending. The same pattern is found in both samples, suggesting the stability of findings. The implications of these findings are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. One can question our argument that the use of alcohol is considered as an indicator of one’s lifestyle, rather than an indicator of offending. In the U.S. alcohol use is far more restricted than in Belgium and Sweden. In the present study we consider the use of alcohol as an additional proxy for spending time in unsupervised settings.

  2. We acknowledge that these variables are attributes and not causes of offending and victimization, but from a methodological point of view it is important to control for confounders in survey-based studies.

  3. These analyses revealed that there were no problems of multicolinearity. No VIF value was larger than 1.8, which is highly acceptable (O’Brien, 2007).

  4. We consider standardized regression coefficients that have values below .10 of little theoretical importance, even if they are statistically significant.

  5. Victim blaming: ‘any allusion to the victim’s role in criminal transactions’ (Rock 2002: 12).

References

  • Bailey, S., & Whittle, N. (2004). "Young people: victims of violence". Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 17, 263–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bjarnason, T., Sigurdardottir, T. J., & Thorlindsson, T. (1999). Human Agency, Capable Guardians, and Structural Constraints: A Lifestyle Approach to the Study of Violent Victimization. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 105–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brants, C. (1982). Definiëring van slachtofferschap: een kritische verkenning van de grenzen der victimologie. Tijdschrift voor Criminologie, 24, 325–340.

    Google Scholar 

  • Childs, K., Gibson, C. (2009). "Low self-control, lifestyles, and violent victimization: Considering the mediating and moderating effects of gang involvement" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Royal York, Toronto < Not Available>. 2009-02-05 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p32216_index.html (27-04-2009).

  • Davies, P., Francis, P., & Jupp, V. (2003). “Victimology, Victimisation and Public Policy”. In P. Davies, P. Francis, & V. Jupp (Eds.), Victimisation: theory, research and policy (pp. 1–27). Macmillan: Houndmills.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Beer, P. W. G., & Fiselier, J. P. W. (1989). Voorrang aan slachtoffers van criminaliteit. Arnhem: Gouda Quint.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fattah, E. A. (1992). “Victims and Victimology: the Facts and the Rhetoric”. In E. A. Fattah (Ed.), Towards a Critical Victimology (pp. 29–56). Houndmills: The Macmillan Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D. (2007). “Developmental Victimology: The Comprehensive Study of Childhood Victimizations”. In R. C. Davis, A. J. Lurigio, & S. Herman (Eds.), Victims of Crime (pp. 9–34). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., & Asdigian, N. L. (1996). Risk Factors for Youth Victimization: Beyond a Lifestyles/Routine Activities Theory Approach. Violence and Victims, 11, 3–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finkelhor, D., & Hashima, P. Y. (2001). “The Victimization of Children and Youth: A Comprehensive Overview”. In S. O. White (Ed.), Handbook of Youth and Justice (pp. 49–78). New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers Group.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, J., Siegel, L., & Laub, J. (1987). School-Related Victimizations Among Adolescents: An Analysis of National Crime Survey (NCS) Narratives. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3, 21–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs, J. J., Giever, D., & Higgins, G. E. (2003). A test of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory using structural equation modeling. Criminal Justice and Behavior 30, 441–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grasmick, H. G., Tittle, C. R., Bursik, R. J., Jr., & Arneklev, B. J. (1993). Testing the core empirical implications of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 30, 5–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hindelang, H. J., Gottfredson, M. R., & Garofalo, S. (1978). Victims of Personal Crime: An Emperical Foundation for a Theory of Personal Victimization. Cambridge: Ballinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. (1990). A general Theory of Crime. Stansford: Stansford California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, G. F., & Brownfield, D. (1986). “Gender, lifestyles, and victimization: beyond routine activity”. Violence and Victims, 1(2), 85–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nofziger, S. (2007-11-14). "Integrating Self-Control and Lifestyle Theories to Explain Juvenile Violence and Victimization" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CRIMINOLOGY, Atlanta Marriott Marquis, Atlanta, Georgia Online < PDF>. 2009-02-03 from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p200176_index.html.

  • Nofziger, S., & Kurtz, D. (2005). Violent Lives: a Life Style Model Linking Exposure to Violence to Juvenile Violent Offending. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 42, 3–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Osgood, D. W., & Anderson, A. L. (2004). Unstructured Socializing and Rates of Delinquency. Criminology, 42, 519–549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pauwels, L., & Pleysier, S. (2008). “Crime Victims and insecurity surveys in Belgium and the Netherlands”. In R. Zauberman (Ed.), Victimisation and Insecurity in Europe. A Review of Surveys and their Use (pp. 39–64). Brussel: VUBPRESS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2000). The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s general theory of crime: A meta-analysis. Criminology, 38, 931–964.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purugganan, O. H., Stein, R. E. K., Johnson Silver, E., & Benenson, B. S. (2000). Exposure to Violence Among Urban School-Aged Children: Is it Only on Television? Pediatrics, 106, 949–953.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rock, P. (2002). On Becoming a Victim. In C. Hoyle & R. Young (Eds.), New Visions of Crime Victims (pp. 1–22). Oxford: Hart Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sampson, R. J. &. Lauritsen, J.L. (1990). "Deviant lifestyles, proximity to crime, and the offender-victim link in personal violence". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency (27): 110–133.

  • Schreck, C. (1999). Criminal victimization and low self-control: and test of a general theory of crime. Justice Quarterly, 16(3), 633–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaffer, J. N. & Ruback, R. B. (2002). "Violent Victimization as a Risk Factor for Violent Offending Among Juveniles", Juvenile Justice Bulletin, http://www.ncjrs.gov/html/ojjdp/jjbul2002_12_1/contents.html (12-03-2009).

  • Singer, S. I. (1981). Homogeneous victim-offender populations: a review and research implications. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 72, 779–788.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. J., McVie, S., Woodward, R., Shute, J., Flint, J. & McAra, L. (2001). The Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime: Key findings at ages 12 and 13, 209 p. http://www.law.ed.ac.uk/cls/esytc/findreport/wholereport.pdf (18-03-2009).

  • Spalek, B. (2006). Crime Victims: theory, policy and practice. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svensson, R., & Oberwittler, D. (2010). It’s not the time they spend, it’s what they do: The interaction between delinquent friends and unstructured routine activities on delinquency. Findings from two countries. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(5), 1006–1014.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Svensson, R., & Pauwels, L. (2010). Is a risky lifestyle always "risky"? The interaction between individual propensity and lifestyle risk in adolescent offending: A test in two urban samples. Crime & Delinquency, 56(4), 608–626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Svensson, R., Pauwels, L., & Weerman, F. M. (2010). Does the effect of self-control on adolescent offending vary by level of morality? A test in three countries. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 37(6), 732–743.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Dijk, J. J. M. (2008). In the shadow of Christ? On the use of the word “victim” for those affected by crime. Criminal Justice Ethics, 27(1), 13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Noije, L. & Wittebrood, K. (2007). “Veiligheid” in Bijl, R., Boelhouwer, J. & Pommer, E. (Eds.), De sociale staat van Nederland 2007, Den Haag: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau, pp. 213–244.

  • Vazsonyi, A. T., Pickering, L. E., Belliston, L. M., Hessing, D., & Junger, M. (2002). “Routine activities and deviant behaviors: American, Dutch, Hungarian, and Swiss youth”. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 18, 397–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walklate, S. (2007a). Imagining the victim of crime (p. 189). Berkshire: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walklate, S. (2007b). Understanding Criminology: Current theoretical debates. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wikström, P.-O. H. (2004). ”Crime as alternative. Towards a cross-level situational action theory of crime causation”. In J. McCord (Ed.), Beyond empiricism: Institutions and intentions in the study of crime, Advances in criminological theory, Vol. 13. New Brunswick: NJ: Transaction.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wikström, P-O. H. & Butterworth, D.A. (2006). Adolescent crime: Individuals differences and lifestyles, Willan Publishing.

  • Wikström, P.-O. H., & Loeber, R. (2000). ”Do Disadvantaged Neighborhoods Cause Well Adjusted Children To Become Adolescent Delinquents? A Study of Male Juvenile Serious Offending, Individual Risk and Protective Factors, and Neighborhood Context”. Criminology, 38(4), 1109–1142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wittebrood, K., & Nieuwbeerta, P. (1997). Wie misdaden pleegt, kan klappen verwachten. De invloed van daderschap en leefpatronen op de kans slachtoffer van geweld te worden. Tijdschrift voor Criminologie, 4, 341–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wittebrood, K., & Nieuwbeerta, P. (1999). Wages of sin? The link between offending, lifestyle and violent victimization. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 7, 63–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Criminology and Penal Law, Research group Social Analysis of Security, Ghent University, Universiteitstraat 4, 9000, Gent, Belgium

    Lieven J. R. Pauwels

  2. Faculty of Health and Society, Malmö University, SE- 205 06, Malmo, Sweden

    Robert Svensson

Authors
  1. Lieven J. R. Pauwels
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Robert Svensson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lieven J. R. Pauwels.

Appendix

Appendix

Table 5 Measures employed in the two samples
Full size table
Table 6 Correlation matrix in Sint-Niklaas
Full size table
Table 7 Correlation matrix in Halmstad
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pauwels, L.J.R., Svensson, R. Exploring the Relationship Between Offending and Victimization: What is the Role of Risky Lifestyles and Low Self-Control? A Test in Two Urban Samples. Eur J Crim Policy Res 17, 163–177 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-011-9150-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10610-011-9150-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation