Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Effects of Cumulative Risk and Protection on Problem Behaviors for Youth in an Urban School-Based System of Care

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Community Mental Health Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study examined the cumulative effects of risk and protective factors on internalizing and externalizing problems for a sample of youth who were diagnosed with a severe emotional disturbance and enrolled in an urban school-based system of care. The sample included 139 Latino and African American children (ages 5–19; 65 % male) and their families. After controlling for demographic variables, the results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that cumulative risk and protection were significantly related to internalizing problem behaviors, and cumulative protection was negatively related to externalizing problem behaviors. The findings support the importance of including or increasing strength building approaches, in addition to risk reduction, in order to maximize prevention and intervention efforts for system-of-care populations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abidin, R. R. (1995). Parenting stress index (PSI). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1983). Manual for the child behavior checklist and revised child behavior profile. Burlington, VT: T. M. Achenbach.

    Google Scholar 

  • Achenbach, T. M., Dumenci, L., & Rescorla, L. A. (2002). Ten-year comparisons of problems and competencies for national samples of youth: Self, parent and teacher reports. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10(4), 194–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Appleyard, K., Egeland, B., van Dulmen, M. H., & Sroufe, L. (2005). When more is not better: The role of cumulative risk in child behavior outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(3), 235–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Atzaba-Poria, N., Pike, A., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2004). Do risk factors for problem behaviour act in a cumulative manner? An examination of ethnic minority and majority children through an ecological perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(4), 707–718.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beardslee, W. R., Chien, P. L., & Bell, C. C. (2011). Prevention of mental disorders, substance abuse, and problem behaviors: A developmental perspective. Psychiatric Services, 62(3), 247–254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, N. K., & Flora, D. B. (2002). When is it appropriate to focus on protection in interventions for adolescents? American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 72(4), 526–538. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.72.4.526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M., Ryan, J. A., Lonczak, H. S., & Hawkins, J. (2004). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 98–124. doi:10.1177/0002716203260102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, D. P., Dube, S. R., & Anda, R. F. (2007). Adverse childhood events as risk factors for negative mental health outcomes. Psychiatric Annals, 37(5), 359–364.

    Google Scholar 

  • CMHS. (2001). Annual report to Congress on the evaluation of the comprehensive community mental health services for children and their families program. Atlanta, GA: ORC Macro International.

    Google Scholar 

  • CMHS. (2005a). Annual report to Congress on the evaluation of the comprehensive community mental health services for children and their families program, 2005. Atlanta, GA: Macro International.

    Google Scholar 

  • CMHS. (2005b). Data manual. Phase IV of the CMHS national evaluation—Communities funded in 2002, 2003, and 2004. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Administration.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, A., Blaustein, M., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. (2003). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. National Child Traumatic Stress Network.

  • Dekovic, M. (1999). Risk and protective factors in the development of problem behavior during adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(6), 667–685. doi:10.1023/A:1021635516758.

  • Epstein, M. H., & Sharma, J. (1998). Behavioral and emotional rating scale: A strengths-based approach to assessment. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, M. H., Harniss, M. K., Pearson, N., & Ryser, G. (1999). The behavioral and emotional rating scale: Test–retest and inter–rater reliability. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 8(3), 319–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, J. A., Botvin, G. J., Griffin, K. W., & Diaz, T. (2001). Protective factors buffer effects of risk factors on alcohol use among inner-city youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 11(1), 77–90. doi:10.1300/J029v11n01_04.

    Google Scholar 

  • Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, M. W., Richman, J. M., & Galinsky, M. J. (1999). Risk, protection, and resilience: Toward a conceptual framework for social work practice. Social Work Research, 23(3), 131–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gabalda, M. K., Thompson, M. P., & Kaslow, N. J. (2010). Risk and protective factors for psychological adjustment among low-income, African American children. Journal of Family Issues, 31(4), 423–444. doi:10.1177/0192513x09348488.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerard, J. M., & Buehler, C. (2004). Cumulative environmental risk and youth maladjustment: The role of youth attributes. Child Development, 75(6), 1832–1849. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00820.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, G., McEwen, E., Samuels, B. H., Suggs, H., Redd, J. L., & McClelland, G. M. (2011). Infusing protective factors for children in foster care. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 34(1), 185–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grych, J. H., Jouriles, E. N., Swank, P. R., McDonald, R., & Norwood, W. D. (2000). Patterns of adjustment among children of battered women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 84–94. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.1.84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71(3), 543–562. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00164.

  • Miech, R., Azur, M., Dusablon, T., Jowers, K., Goldstein, A. B., Stuart, E. A., et al. (2008). The potential to reduce mental health disparities through the comprehensive community mental health services for children and their families program. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research, 35(3), 253–264.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Prevention Council. (2011). National Prevention Strategy. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General.

  • O’Connell, M. E., Boat, T., & Warner, K. E. (Eds.). (2009). Preventing mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders among young people: Progress and possibilities. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.

  • Ostaszewski, K., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2006). The effects of cumulative risks and promotive factors on urban adolescent alcohol and other drug use: A longitudinal study of resiliency. American Journal of Community Psychology, 38(3–4), 237–249. doi:10.1007/s10464-006-9076-x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children’s responses to stress and disadvantage. In M. W. Kent & J. E. Rolf (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology (Vol. 3, pp. 49–74)., Social competence in children Hanover, NH: University of New England Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J. (2000a). Dialectical processes in developmental psychopathology. In A. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis, & S. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 23–40). New York: Kluwer/Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J. (2000b). Ecological perspectives on developmental risk. In J. D. Osofsky & H. E. Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH handbook of infant mental health: Infant mental health in groups at high risk (Vol. 4, pp. 1–33). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Zax, M., & Barocas, R. (1987). Early indicators of developmental risk: Rochester longitudinal study. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13(3), 383–394.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J., Bartko, W. T., Baldwin, A., Baldwin, C., & Seifer, R. (1998). Family and social influences on the development of child competence. In M. Lewis & C. Feiring (Eds.), Families, risk, and competence (pp. 161–183). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stroul, B. A., & Friedman, R. M. (1986). A system of care for severely emotionally disturbed children & youth. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Child Development Center, National Technical Assistance Center for Children’s Mental Health.

    Google Scholar 

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, CFMHS. (2007). Promotion and prevention in mental health: Strengthening parenting and enhancing child resilience. DHHS publication no. CMHS-SVP-0175. Rockville, MD.

  • Tebes, J. K., Kaufman, J. S., Adnopoz, J., & Racusin, G. (2001). Resilience and family psychosocial processes among children of parents with serious mental disorders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 10(1), 115–136. doi:10.1023/A:1016685618455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trentacosta, C. J., Hyde, L. W., Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Gardner, F., & Wilson, M. (2008). The relations among cumulative risk, parenting, and behavior problems during early childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(11), 1211–1219.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health.

  • Walrath, C. M., Ybarra, M. L., Sheehan, A. K., Holden, E., & Burns, B. J. (2006). Impact of maltreatment on children served in community mental health programs. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 14(3), 143–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whitson, M. L., Connell, C. M., Bernard, S., & Kaufman, J. S. (2010). An examination of exposure to traumatic events and symptoms and strengths for children served in a behavioral health system of care. Journal of Emotional and Behavior Disorders. doi:10.1177/1063426610380596.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 581–599. doi:10.1007/BF02506983.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of New Haven, 300 Boston Post Road, West Haven, CT, 06516, USA

    Melissa L. Whitson

  2. Department of Public Health, Southern Connecticut State University, 501 Crescent Street, New Haven, CT, 06515, USA

    Stanley Bernard

  3. Department of Psychiatry, The Consultation Center, Yale University School of Medicine, 389 Whitney Ave., New Haven, CT, 06511, USA

    Joy S. Kaufman

Authors
  1. Melissa L. Whitson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stanley Bernard
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Joy S. Kaufman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Melissa L. Whitson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Whitson, M.L., Bernard, S. & Kaufman, J.S. The Effects of Cumulative Risk and Protection on Problem Behaviors for Youth in an Urban School-Based System of Care. Community Ment Health J 49, 576–586 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-012-9535-9

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-012-9535-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation