Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Promoting School Readiness in the Context of Socio-Economic Adversity: Associations with Parental Demoralization and Support for Learning

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Child & Youth Care Forum Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background

Existing research suggests that parenting stress and demoralization, as well as provision of learning activities at home, significantly affect child school readiness. However, the degree to which these dimensions of parenting uniquely influence child school readiness remains unclear.

Objective

This study tested the hypothesis that parent demoralization and support for learning are distinct constructs that independently influence child school readiness. Direct and indirect (mediated) models of association were examined.

Methods

117 kindergarten children with low literacy and language skills and their parents were recruited from three Northeastern school districts serving primarily low-income families. Parents reported on their own depressive symptoms, parenting difficulties, attitudes and behaviors related to learning activities, and the frequency of parent–child conversation at home. Teachers rated child school readiness, as indicated by classroom behaviors, approaches to learning, and emergent language and literacy skills.

Results

In a factor analysis, parent demoralization and support for learning emerged as distinct constructs. Structural equation models revealed that parent demoralization was negatively associated with child school readiness, whereas parent support for learning was positively associated with child school readiness. Neither parenting construct mediated the effect of the other.

Conclusions

Among low-income families with children at high risk for school difficulties, parental demoralization and support of learning opportunities at home appear to independently influence child school readiness. Thus, parent-based interventions targeting child school readiness would likely benefit from enhancing both parental self-efficacy and provision of learning activities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, K., Lytton, H., & Romney, D. (1986). Mothers’ interactions with normal and conduct-disordered boys: Who affects whom? Developmental Psychology, 22(5), 604–609.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, C. E., Cameron, C. E., Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., & Grissmer, D. (2012). Family and sociodemographic predictors of school readiness among African American boys in Kindergarten. Early Education & Development, 23(6), 833–854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, A. J. L., Piotrkowski, C. S., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1999). The home instruction program for preschool youngsters (HIPPY). The Future of Children, 9, 116–132.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bernier, A., Carlson, S. M., & Whipple, N. (2010). From external regulation to self-regulation: Early parenting precursors of young children’s executive functioning. Child Development, 81, 326–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierman, K., Torres, M., Domitrovich, C., Welsh, J., & Gest, S. (2008). Behavioral and cognitive readiness for school: Cross-domain associations for children attending Head Start. Social Development, 18(2), 305–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of child functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111–127.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2010). Predicting emotional and social competence during early childhood from toddler risk and maternal behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 22(1), 119–132.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks-Gunn, J., & Markman, L. B. (2005). The contribution of parenting to ethnic and racial gaps in school readiness. The Future of Children, 15, 139–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brotman, L. M., Calzada, E., Huang, K., Kingston, S., Dawson-McClure, S., Kamboukos, D., et al. (2011). Promoting effective parenting practices and preventing child behavior problems in school among ethnically diverse families from underserved, urban communities. Child Development, 82, 258–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burchinal, M., Roberts, J. E., Zeisel, S. A., Hennon, E. A., & Hooper, S. (2006). Social risk and protective child, parenting, and child care factors in early elementary school years. Parenting: Science and Practice, 6(1), 79–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burchinal, M., Vernon-Feagans, L., Cox, M., & Key Family Life Project Investigators. (2008). Cumulative social risk, parenting, and infant development in rural low-income communities. Parenting: Science and Practice, 8, 41–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (2012). Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, S. B., & von Stauffenberg, C. (2008). Child characteristics and family processes that predict behavioral readiness for school. In A. Booth & A. C. Crouter (Eds.), Disparities in school readiness: How do families contribute to successful and unsuccessful transitions to school (pp. 225–258). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chazan-Cohen, R., Raikes, H., Brooks-Gunn, J., Ayoub, C., Pan, B. A., & Kisker, E. E. (2009). Low-income children’s school readiness: Parent contributions over the first five years. Early Education and Development, 20(6), 958–977.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheadle, J. E. (2008). Educational investment, family context, and children’s math and reading growth from Kindergarten through third grade. Sociology of Education, 81, 1–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, C. E., Crosnoe, R., Suizzo, M. A., & Pituch, K. A. (2010). Poverty, race, and parental involvement during the transition to elementary school. Journal of Family Issues, 31(7), 859–883.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cummings, E., & Davies, P. (1994). Maternal depression and child development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(1), 73–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, C. E., & Boyle, M. H. (2002). Preschoolers at risk for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional defiant disorder: Family, parenting, and behavioral correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(6), 555–569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeBaryshe, B. (1995). Maternal belief systems: Linchpin in the home reading process. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 16(1), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeBaryshe, B., & Binder, J. (1994). Development of an instrument for measuring parental beliefs about reading aloud to young children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 78(3), 1303–1311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dotterer, A. M., Iruka, I. U., & Pungello, E. (2012). Parenting, race, and socioeconomic status: Links to school readiness. Family Relations, 61(4), 657–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Drummond, K. V., & Stipek, D. (2004). Low-income parents’ beliefs about their role in children’s academic learning. The Elementary School Journal, 104(3), 197–213.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G. J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P. K. (1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood development. Child Development, 65, 296–318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston, A. C., & Klebanov, P. (2007). School readiness and later achievement. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1428–1446.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. (1991). Parent and teacher ratings of ADHD symptoms: Psychometric properties in a community-based sample. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20(3), 245–253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eccles, J. S., & Harold, R. D. (1996). Family involvement in children’s and adolescents’ schooling. In A. Booth & J. F. Dunn (Eds.), Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes? (pp. 3–34). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feder, A., Alonso, A., Tang, M., Liriano, W., Warner, V., & Pilowsky, D. (2009). Children of low income depressed mothers: Psychiatric disorders and social adjustment. Depression and anxiety, 26(6), 513–520.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foster, M. A., Lambert, R., Abbott-Shim, M., McCarty, F., & Franze, S. (2005). A model of home learning environment and social risk factors in relation to children’s emergent literacy and social outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20(1), 13–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fox, C. R., & Gelfand, D. M. (1994). Depressed mood, maternal vigilance, and mother–child interaction. Early Development & Parenting, 3, 233–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galster, G. C. (2012). The mechanism(s) of neighbourhood effects: Theory, evidence, and policy implications. In M. van Ham, D. Manley, N. Bailey, L. Simpson, & D. Maclennan (Eds.), Neighbourhood effects research: New perspectives (pp. 23–56). London: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Guo, G., & Harris, K. (2000). The mechanisms mediating the effects of poverty on children’s intellectual development. Demography, 37(4), 431–447.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, B., & Risley, T. R. (1995). Meaningful differences in the everyday experience of young American children. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollingshead, A. (1957). Two factor index of social position. New Haven, CT: Privately printed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., & Sandler, H. M. (1997). Why do parents become involved in their children’s education? Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 3–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, T. L., & Prinz, R. J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(3), 341–363.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kam, C. M., Greenberg, M. T., Bierman, K. L., Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., & Foster, M. E. (2011). Maternal depressive symptoms and child social preference during the early school years: Mediation by maternal warmth and child emotion regulation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39(3), 365–377.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaminski, R. A., Stormshak, E. A., Good, R. H., & Goodman, M. R. (2002). Prevention of substance abuse with rural Head Start children and families: Results of Project STAR. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16, 511–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiernan, K. E., & Mensah, F. K. (2011). Poverty, family resources and children’s early educational attainment: The mediating role of parenting. British Educational Research Journal, 37(2), 317–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klebanov, P. K., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Duncan, G. J. (1994). Does neighborhood and family poverty affect mothers’ parenting, mental health, and social support? Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56(2), 441–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Knitzer, J., Theberge, S., & Johnson, K. (2008). Reducing maternal depression and its impact on young children: Toward a responsive early childhood policy framework (Project Thrive Issue Brief 2). Retrieved from National Center for Children in Poverty website: http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_791.html.

  • Landry, S. H., Smith, K. E., Swank, P. R., & Miller-Loncar, C. L. (2000). Early maternal and child influences on children’s later independent cognitive and social functioning. Child Development, 71, 358–375.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lengua, L. J., Honorado, E., & Bush, N. R. (2007). Contextual risk and parenting as predictors of effortful control and social competence in preschool children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 40–55.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levenstein, P., Levenstein, S., Shiminski, J. A., & Stolzberg, J. E. (1998). Long-term impact of a verbal interaction program for at-risk toddlers: An exploratory study of high school outcomes in a replication of the Mother–Child Home Program. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19(2), 267–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling, 9(2), 151–173.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lonigan, C. J., Burgess, S. R., & Anthony, J. L. (2000). Development of emergent literacy and early reading skills in preschool children: Evidence from a latent-variable longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 36, 596–613.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lonigan, C., & Whitehurst, G. (1998). Relative efficacy of a parent and teacher involvement in a shared-reading intervention for preschool children from low-income backgrounds. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13, 263–290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, M., Graczyk, P., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5), 561–592.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lugo-Gil, J., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. S. (2008). Family resources and parenting quality: Links to children’s cognitive development across the first 3 years. Child Development, 79(4), 1065–1085.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lunkenheimer, E. S., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D. S., Connell, A. M., Gardner, F., & Wilson, M. N. (2008). Collateral benefits of the family check-up on early childhood school readiness: Indirect effects of parents’ positive behavior support. Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1737–1752.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Madden, J., O’Hara, J. M., & Levenstein, P. (1984). Home again: Effects of the Mother–Child Home Program on mother and child. Child Development, 55, 636–647.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, A., Ryan, R. M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2010). When fathers’ supportiveness matters most: Maternal and paternal parenting and children’s school readiness. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(2), 145–155.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2006). The impact of kindergarten learning-related skills on academic trajectories at the end of elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21, 471–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDermott, P. (1999). National scales of differential learning behaviors among American children and adolescents. School Psychology Review, 28, 280–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53(2), 185–204.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mistry, R. S., Benner, A. D., Biesanz, J. C., Clark, S. L., & Howes, C. (2010). Family and social risk, and parental investments during the early childhood years as predictors of low-income children’s school readiness outcomes. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 25(4), 432–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B. (2004). Mplus technical appendices. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, B. (2011). Applications of causally defined direct and indirect effects in mediation analyses using SEM in Mplus. Retrieved from http://www.statmodel2.com/download/causalmediation.pdf.

  • Nord, C. W., Lennon, J., Liu, B., & Chandler, K. (2000). Home literacy activities and signs of children’s emerging literacy, 1993 and 1999 (NCES Publication 2000–026). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petterson, S. M., & Albers, A. B. (2001). Effects of poverty and maternal depression on early child development. Child Development, 72(6), 1794–1813.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reid, M. J., Webster-Stratton, C., & Baydar, N. (2004). Halting the development of conduct problems in Head Start children: The effects of parent training. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 279–291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rock, D., & Pollack, J. (2002). Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class of 1998–1999 (ECLS-K): Psychometric Report for Kindergarten through First Grade. (NCES-WP-2002-05). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1a/8a/8f.pdf.

  • Rodriguez, E. T., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Spellmann, M. E., Pan, B. A., Raikes, H., & Lugo-Gil, J. (2009). The formative role of home literacy experiences across the first three years of life in children from low-income families. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30(6), 677–694.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romano, E., Babchishin, L., Pagani, L. S., & Kohen, D. (2010). School readiness and later achievement: Replication and extension using a nationwide Canadian survey. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 995–1007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M., Fauth, R. C., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2006). Childhood poverty: Implications for school readiness and early childhood education. In B. Spodek & O. N. Saracho (Eds.), Handbook of research on the education of young children (2nd ed., pp. 323–346). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sameroff, A. J., & Chandler, M. J. (1975). Reproductive risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. Review of Child Development Research, 4, 187–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scarborough, A. (2001). Behavioral patterns of toddlers with speech language delay: The relationship with child, family, and poverty. Dissertations Abstract International, 61, 4339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research, 99(6), 323–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sénéchal, M. (2006). Testing the home literacy model: parent involvement in kindergarten is differentially related to grade 4 reading comprehension, fluency, spelling, and reading for pleasure. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(1), 59–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvén, M., Niemi, P., & Voeten, M. J. M. (2002). Do maternal interaction and early language predict phonological awareness in 3- to 4-year-olds? Cognitive Development, 17(1), 1133–1155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, K., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stormshak, E. A., Bierman, K. L., McMahon, R. J., Lengua, L. J., & CPPRG. (2000). Parenting practices and child disruptive behavior problems in early elementary school. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 29, 17–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strayhorn, J., & Weidman, C. (1988). A parent practices scale and its relation to parent and child mental health. Journal of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(5), 613–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, J., Wilkins, A., Dallaire, J., Sandler, H., & Hoover-Dempsey, K. (2005). Parental involvement: Model revision through scale development. The Elementary School Journal, 106(2), 85–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watamura, S. E., Phillips, D. A., Morrissey, T. W., McCartney, K., & Bub, K. (2011). Double jeopardy: Poorer social–emotional outcomes for children in the NICHD SECCYD experiencing home and child-care environments that confer risk. Child Development, 82(1), 48–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C. (1998). Preventing conduct problems in Head Start children: Strengthening parenting competencies. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 715–730.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, M. J., & Hammond, M. (2001). Preventing conduct problems, promoting social competence: A parent and teacher training partnership in Head Start. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 283–302.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Welsh, J. A., Bierman, K. L., & Mathis, E. T. (2014). Parenting programs that promote school readiness. In M. Boivin & K. L. Bierman (Eds.), Promoting school readiness and early learning: Implications of developmental research for practice (pp. 253–278). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, C., George, T., Burke, R., Gelfand, D., & Teti, D. (2000). Early maternal depression and children. Child Study Journal, 30, 153–168.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Research for this project was supported by a grant from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation and by National Institute of Child Health and Human Development grant HD046064.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, MS 740, Memphis, TN, 38105-3678, USA

    Yuko Okado

  2. Child Study Center, The Pennsylvania State University, USB I, University Park, PA, 16802-1003, USA

    Karen L. Bierman

  3. Prevention Research Center, The Pennsylvania State University, Biobehavioral Health Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA

    Janet A. Welsh

Authors
  1. Yuko Okado
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Karen L. Bierman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Janet A. Welsh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yuko Okado.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Okado, Y., Bierman, K.L. & Welsh, J.A. Promoting School Readiness in the Context of Socio-Economic Adversity: Associations with Parental Demoralization and Support for Learning. Child Youth Care Forum 43, 353–371 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-013-9242-x

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-013-9242-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation