Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Positive and Negative Effects of Long-Term Bombardment Among Israeli Adolescents: The Role of Gender and Social Environment

  • Published:
Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The effects of living under long-term bombardment were studied among 1,004 adolescent students in Israel. The study was based on the theoretical framework of the conservation of resources and examined differences between boys and girls who live in high and low socioeconomic environments. The findings revealed that students from a low socioeconomic status (SES) and girls present more negative symptoms than high SES students and boys, while concomitantly exhibiting greater posttraumatic growth. The contribution of social resources for coping and the relationship between positive and negative symptoms as result of exposure to terrorism are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adler, N. E., Boyce, T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., et al. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: the challenge of the gradient. The American Psychologist, 49, 15–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, D. M., Furr, L. A., & Spine, M. (2002). The effects of neighborhood conditions on perceptions of safety. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 417–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bachar, E., Canetti, L., Bonne, O., Denour, A. K., & Shalev, A. Y. (1997). Psychological well–being and ratings of psychiatric symptoms in bereaved Israeli adolescents: differential effect of war vs. accident related bereavement. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 402–406.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D., & Jacobson, D. (1998). A psychological perspective on security. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 47, 59–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Begiĉ, D., & Jokic-Begiĉ, N. (2001). Aggressive behavior in combat veterans with post traumatic stress disorder. Military Medicine, 166, 671–676.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benbenishty, R., & Astor, R. A. (2005). School violence in context: culture, neighborhood, family, school, and gender. NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benbenishty, R., Astor, R. A., & Marachi, R. (2006). A national study of school violence in Israel: implications for theory, practice, and policy. In S. R. Jimerson & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of school violence and school safety: From research to practice (pp. 481–497). Mahwah: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benyamini, Y., Fuchs, Z., Shapira, Z., Novikoy, I., Walter Ginzburg, A., & Modan, B. (2004). The effect of a communal lifestyle on depressive symptoms in late life. Journal of Aging and Health, 16, 151–174.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bird, H. R. (1996). Epidemiology of childhood disorders in a cross-cultural context. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 35–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., & Österman, K. (1992). The direct and indirect aggression scale (DIAS). Vasa, Finland: Department of Social Science,Abo Academy University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleich, A., Gelkopf, M., & Solomon, Z. (2003). Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and coping behaviors among a nationally representative sample in Israel. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 290, 612–620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, R. H., & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butler, L. D., Blasey, C. M., Azarow, J., McCaslin, S. E., Garlan, R. W., Chen, X. H., et al. (2005). Posttraumatic growth following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001: Cognitive, coping, and trauma symptom predictors in an internet convenience sample. Traumatology, 11, 247–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (2006). Handbook of posttraumatic growth: Research and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Silver, R., Holman, E. A., McIntosh, D. N., Poulin, M., & Gil-Rivas, V. (2002). Nationwide longitudinal study of psychological responses to September 11. Journal of the American Medical Association, 288, 1235–1244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J. R. T., & Fairbank, J. A. (1993). The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: DSM-IV and beyond (pp. 147–169). Washington DC : American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dekel, R., Ginzburg, K., & Hantman, S. (2004). In the front line: Hospital social workers confront ongoing terrorism. Society and Welfare, 24(2), 163–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dekel, R., & Nuttman-Shwartz, O. (2009). Posttraumatic stress and growth among development town and kibbutz residents: The contribution of cognitive appraisal and sense of belonging to the country. Health and Social Work, 34, 87–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeLisi, L. E., Maurizio, A., Yost, M., Papparozi, C. F., Fulchino, C., Katz, C. L., et al. (2003). A survey of New Yorkers after the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 780–783.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeVoe, J.F., Peter, K., Noonan, M., Snyder, T.D., Baum, K., Kaufman, P., Miller, A. (2004) Indicators of School Crime and Safety: 2004. Retrieved March 19, 2009 from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/iscs04.pdf.

  • Dyregrov, A., Gupta, L., Gjestad, R., & Mukanoheli, E. (2000). Trauma exposure and psychological reactions to genocide among rwandan children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 3–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evers, A. W. M., Kraaimaat, F. W., Van Lankveld, W., Jongen, P. J. H., Jacobs, J. W. G., & Bijlsma, J. W. J. (2001). Beyond unfavorable thinking: The Illness Cognition Questionnaire for Chronic Diseases. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 1026–1036.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedy, J. R., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2004). Stress inoculation for reduction of burnout: A conservation of resources approach. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 6, 311–325.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fremont, W. P. (2004). Childhood reactions to terrorism-induced trauma: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 381–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friel, A., White, T., & Hull, A. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder and criminal responsibility. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 19, 64–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garbarino, J. (1992). The meaning of poverty in the world of children. American Behavioral Scientist, 35, 220–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gavrilovic, J., Lecic, T. D., Knezevic, G., & Priebe, S. (2002). Predictors of posttraumatic stress in civilians 1 year after air attacks: A study of Yugoslavian students. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 190, 257–262.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hantman S (1992). The effect of previous exposure to traumatic events on the response of elderly people to the Gulf War. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Tel-Aviv University (Hebrew).

  • Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N., & McEvoy, L. (1987). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population. The New England Journal of Medicine, 317, 1630–1634.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. L. (2005). Early intervention for trauma and traumatic loss. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1036–1037.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (1988). The ecology of stress. New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E. (1998). Stress, culture, and community: The psychology and philosophy of stress. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E., Canetti-Nisim, D., & Johnson, R. J. (2006). Exposure to terrorism, stress-related mental health symptoms, and defensive coping among Jews and Arabs in Israel. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 207–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hobfoll, S. E., Hall, B. J., Canetti-Nisim, D., Galea, S., Johnson, R. J., & Palmieri, P. (2007). Refining our understanding of traumatic growth in the face of terrorism: Moving from meaning cognitions to doing what is meaningful. Applied Psychology, 56, 345–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Husain, S. A., Nair, J., Holcomb, W., Reid, J. C., Vargas, V., & Nair, S. S. (1998). Stress reactions of children and adolescents in war and siege conditions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1718–1719.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Intelligence and Terrorism Information Center at the Israel Intelligence Heritage & Commemoration Center (IICC) . (2009). Summary of rocket fire and mortar shelling in 2008. Retrieved February 15, 2009 from http://www.terrorism-info.org.il.

  • Itzhaky, H., & York, A. (2000). Empowerment and community participation: does gender make a difference. Social Work Research, 24(4), 225–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Itzhaky, H., & York, A. (2005). The role of the social worker in the face of terrorism: Israeli community-based experience. Social Work, 50, 141–149.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janoff-Bulman, R. (2006). Schema-change perspectives on posttraumatic growth. In L. G. Calhoun & R. G. Tedeschi (Eds.), Handbook of posttraumatic growth: research and practice (pp. 81–99). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, S., Williams, R., & Yule, W. (1993). Changes in outlook following disaster: The preliminary development of a measure to assess positive and negative responses. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 6, 271–279.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kimhi, S., & Shamai, M. (2006). Community resilience as a buffer of stress reaction northern community response to Israel’s withdrawal from Lebanon. Social Issues in Israel, 1, 152–170.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landau, S. F. (1998). Security-related stress and the quality of life. In D. Bar-Tal, D. Jacobson, & A. Klieman (Eds.), Security concerns, insights from the Israeli experience (pp. 289–310). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landau, S. F., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M. J., Österman, K., & Gideon, L. (2002). The effect of religiosity and ethnic origin on direct and indirect aggression among males and females: Some Israeli findings. Aggressive Behavior, 28, 281–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laufer, A., Raz-Hamama, Y., Levin, S. Z., & Solomon, Z. (2009). Posttraumatic growth in adolescence: The role of religiosity, distress and forgiveness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 862–880.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laufer, A., & Solomon, Z. (2006). Posttraumatic symptoms and posttraumatic growth among Israeli youth exposed to terror incidents. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25, 429–448.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laufer, A., & Solomon, Z. (2009). Gender differences in PTSD in Israeli youth exposed to terror attacks. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 959–976.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leadbeater, B. J., Blatt, S. J., & Quinlan, D. M. (1995). Gender-linked vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms, stress, and problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 1–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehman, D., Davis, C., DeLongis, A., Wortman, C., Bluck, S., Mandel, D., et al. (1993). Positive and negative life changes following bereavement and their relations to adjustment. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12, 90–112.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lev–Wiesel, R., & Amir, M. (2003). Posttraumatic growth among Holocaust child survivors. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 8, 229–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipschitz, D. S., Rasmusson, A. M., Anyan, W., Cromwell, P., & Southwick, S. M. (2000). Clinical and functional correlates of posttraumatic stress disorder in urban adolescent girls at a primary care clinic. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1104–1111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macksoud, M. S., & Aber, J. L. (1996). The war experience and psychosocial growth of children in Lebanon. Child Growth, 67, 70–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • McMillen, J. C., Smith, E. M., & Fisher, R. H. (1997). Perceived benefit and mental health after three types of disaster. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 733–739.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mikulincer, M., Horesh, N., Eilati, I., & Kotler, M. (1999). The association between adult attachment style and mental health in extreme life-endangering conditions. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 831–842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muldoon, O. T., & Downes, C. (2007). Social identification and post-traumatic stress symptoms in post-conflict Northern Ireland. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 191, 146–149.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Norris, F. H., Foster, J. D., & Weisshaar, D. W. (2002). The epidemiology of sex differences in PTSD across developmental, societal & research contexts. In R. Kimerling, P. Ouimette, & J. Wolfe (Eds.), Gender and PTSD (pp. 3–42). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Papageorgiou, V., Frangou-Garunovic, A., Iordanidou, R., Yule, W., Smith, P., & Vostanis, P. (2000). War trauma and psychopathology in Bosnian refugee children. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 9, 84–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pargament, K., Smith, B., Koenig, H., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 710–723.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pat-Horenczyk, R. (2005). Post traumatic distress in Israeli adolescents exposed to ongoing terrorism: Selected findings from school-based screenings in Jerusalem and nearby settlements. In Y. Danieli, D. Brom, & J. Sills (Eds.), The trauma of terrorism: sharing knowledge and shared care, an international handbook (pp. 335–348). Philadelphia, PA: The Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pat-Horenczyk, R., & Brom, D. (2007). The multiple faces of post-traumatic growth. Applied Psychology, 56, 379–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pynoos, R., Frederick, C., Nader, K., & Arroyo, W. (1987). Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school age children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 1057–1063.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Realmuto, G. M., Masten, A., Carole, L. F., Hubbard, J., Groteluschen, A., & Chhun, B. (1992). Adolescent survivors of massive childhood trauma in Cambodia: Life events and current symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 589–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saric, Z., Zuzul, M., & Kerestes, G. (1994). War and children’s aggressive and prosocial behavior. European Journal of Personality, 8, 201–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzwald, J., Weisenberg, M., Solomon, Z., & Waysman, M. (1997). What will the future bring? Thoughts of children after missile bombardment. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, 10, 257–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sherer, M., & Karnieli-Miller, O. (2004). Aggression and violence among Jewish and Arab youth in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 28, 93–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silva, J. A., Derecho, D. V., Leong, G. B., Weinstock, R., & Ferrari, M. M. (2001). A classification of psychological factors leading to violent behavior in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46, 309–316.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon Even-Chen M. (2007). Violence behavior among adolescents in Israel in the shadow of terror and eviction threat: The contribution of personal and environmental resources. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan (Hebrew).

  • Solomon Even-Chen, M., & Itzhaky, H. (2007). Exposure to terrorism and violent behavior among adolescents in Israel. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 43–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, Z., Gelkopf, M., & Bleich, A. (2005). Is terror gender-blind? Gender differences in reaction to terror events. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 40, 947–954.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, Z., & Lavi, T. (2005). Israeli youth in the second intifada: PTSD and future orientation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 1167–1175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, Z., Waysman, M., & Neria, Y. (1999). Positive and negative changes in the lives of Israeli former prisoners of war. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18, 419–435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1995). Trauma and transformation: Growing in the aftermath of suffering. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The posttraumatic growth inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9, 455–471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tedeschi, R. G., Calhoun, L. G., & Cann, A. (2007). Evaluating resource gain: understanding and misunderstanding posttraumatic growth. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 56, 396–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thabet, A. A. M., & Vostanis, P. (1998). Social adversities and anxiety disorders in the Gaza strip. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 78, 439–442.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The Knesset. (2007). Meeting protocol No. 279 of the Internal Affairs and Environment Committee. Retrieved March 15, 2009 from http://www.knesset.gov.il/ protocols/data/html/pnim/2007-12-26.html.

  • Updegraff, J., Taylor, S., Kemeny, M., & Wyatt, G. (2002). Positive and negative effects of HIV infection in women with low socioeconomic resources. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 382–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waysman, M., Solomon, Z., & Schwarzwald, J. (1998). Long-term positive changes following traumatic stress among Israeli prisoners of war. Megamot, 39(1–2), 31–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weisenberg, M., Schwarzwald, J., Waysman, M., Solomon, Z., & Klingman, A. (1993). Coping of school-age children in the sealed room during the Scud missile bombardment and postwar stress reactions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 462–467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widom, C. S. (1989). Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 3–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yiftachel, O. (2000). Social control, urban planning and ethno-class relations: Mizrahi Jews in Israel’s “development towns”. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 24, 418–438.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zoellner, T., & Maercker, A. (2006). Posttraumatic growth in clinical psychology: A critical review and introduction of a two component model. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 626–653.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Education, Bar-Ilan University, 52900, Ramat-Gan, Israel

    Yaacov Boaz Yablon

  2. School of Social Work, Bar-Ilan University, 52900, Ramat Gan, Israel

    Haya Itzhaky & Shira Pagorek-Eshel

Authors
  1. Yaacov Boaz Yablon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Haya Itzhaky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Shira Pagorek-Eshel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yaacov Boaz Yablon.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Yablon, Y.B., Itzhaky, H. & Pagorek-Eshel, S. Positive and Negative Effects of Long-Term Bombardment Among Israeli Adolescents: The Role of Gender and Social Environment. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 28, 189–202 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-011-0227-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-011-0227-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation