Abstract
This study examined the frequency of family violence, community violence, and witnessing of violence for 110 African-American children. Levels of post-traumatic stress, academic achievement and behavior problems of the children were also examined. The students were sixth graders between the ages of 11 and 13 from four inner-city Chicago public schools. The level of exposure to family violence was significantly related to levels of behavior problems and negatively related to school achievement. The level of exposure to community violence was associated with levels of behavior problems and approached significance in a negative direction with school achievement. Academic achievement was not significantly related to behavior, but was significantly associated with post-traumatic stress disorder, family violence, witnessing violence and approached significance with community violence exposure.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The day after the above incident occurred, one of the authors was called to a school as part of a crisis team and was told this story by the child.
References
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1981). Behavioral problems and competencies reported by parents of normal and disturbed children aged four through sixteen. Monographs of the Society for Research Child Development, 46, Serial No. 188
Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL/4-18, YS and TRF profiles. Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont. Burlington, VT
Anderson S., Cramer-Benjamin D., (1999). The impact of couple violence on parenting and children: An overview and clinical implications American Journal of Family Therapy 27(1):1–20
Arroyo W., Eth S., (1985). Children traumatized by central American warfare. In S. Eth, Pynoos R. S., (Eds). The progress in psychiatry series: Post-traumatic stress disorder in children, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, 101–120
Astor R. A., Meyer H. A., Pitne R. O., (2001). Elementary and middle school students, perceptions of violence-prone school sub contexts Elementary School Journal 101(5):1–20
Attar B. K., Guerra N. G., Tolan P. H., (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Special Issue: Impact on poverty on children, youth, and families Journal of School Psychology 23(4):391–400
Bell C., (1987). Preventive strategies for dealing with violence among Blacks Community Mental Health Journal 23(4):217–228
Bell C., Jenkins E. J., (1993). Community violence and children on Chicago’s southside. Special Issue: Children and violence Psychiatry: Interpersonal & Biological Processes 56(1):46–54
Bowen G. L., Van Dorn R. A., (2002). Community violence crime rates and school danger Children and schools 24(2):90–104
Briere J., (Ed). (1994). Assessing and treating victims of violence. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco
Brockenborough K. K., Cornell D. B., Loper A. B., (2002) Aggressive attitudes among victims of violence at school Education and Treatment of Children 25(3):273–287
Campbell C., Schwarz D., (1996). Prevalence and impact of exposure to interpersonal violence among suburban and urban middle school students Pediatrics 98(3):396–403
Carlson B. E., (2000). Children exposed to intimate partner violence Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 1(4):321–342
Cooley-Quille M., Boyd R. C., (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure up community violence in inner-city adolescents Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 30(1):199–206
Dempsey M., Overstreet S., Moely B., (2000). “Approach” and “avoidance” coping and PTSD symptoms in inner-city youth Current Psychology 19(1):28–46
Dyson J. L., (1990). The effects of family violence on children’s academic performance and behavior Journal of the National Medical Association 82(1):17–22
Eiden R., (1999). Exposure to violence and behavior problems during early childhood Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14:1299–1314
Eth S., Pynoos R. S., (1985). Interaction of trauma and grief. In S. Eth, R. S. Pynoos, (Eds). The progress in psychiatry series: Post-traumatic stress disorder in children, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, 169–186
Eth S., Pynoos R., (1994). Children who witness the homicide of a parent Psychiatry: Interpersonal & Biological Processes 57(4):287–306
Finch A. J., Daugherty T. K., (1993). Issuers in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder in children. In C. F. Saylor, (Ed), Children and disasters, Plenum Press. New York
Fisher D., (1999). Preventing childhood trauma resulting from exposure to domestic violence Preventing School Failure 44(1):25–28
Fontes L., (2000). Children exposed to marital violence: How school counselors can help Professional School Counseling 3(4):231–238
Garbarino J., Kostelny K., Dubrow N., (1991). What children can tell us about living in danger. 98th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association Distinguished Professional Contribution Award Address (1990, Boston, MA) American Psychologist 46(4):376–383
Garrish E., (1971). The relationship of violence to the ability, achievement, and adjustment of sixth-grade children (Doctoral dissertation, North Texas State University, 1970) Dissertation, Abstracts International 31:51–99
Green A. H., (1985). Children traumatized by physical abuse. In S. Eth, R. S. Pynoos, (Eds) The progress in psychiatry series. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, 133–154
Groves B., (1997). Growing up in a violent world: The impact of family and community violence on young children and their families Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 17(1):74–102
Guerra N. G., Tolan P. H., Huesmann L. R., Van Acker R., Eron L. D., (1995). Stressful events and individual’s beliefs as correlates of economic disadvantage and aggression among urban children Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 63(4):518–528
Handford H. A., Dickerson S., Mattison R. E., Humphrey F. J., Bagnato S., Bixler E. O., Kales J. D., (1986) Child and parent reaction to the Three Mile island nuclear accident Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 25(3):846–356
Heyman R. E., Slep A. M., Smith, (2002). Do child abuse and interparental violence lead to adulthood family violence? Journal of Marriage and the Family 64(4):1–10
Hieronymus A. N., Lindquist E. F., Hoover H. D., (1979). Iowa test of basic skills, teacher’s guide, Riverside. Chicago
Kampfner C. J., (1995). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children of imprisoned mothers. In K. Gabel, Johnston D., (Eds). Children of incarcerated Parents. Lexington Books. New York
Lemmey D., McFarlane J., Willson P., Malecha A., (2001). Intimate partner violence: Mothers’ perspectives of effects on their children MCN, The American Journal of Maternal/Child Nursing 26(2):98–103
Margolin G., Gordis W., (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children Annual Review of Psychology 51:445–479
Martin D. J., Dunbar S. B., (1985). Hierarchical factoring in a standardized achievement battery Educational and Psychological Measurement 45(2):343–351
Mazza G., Overstreet S., (2000). Children and adolescents exposed to community violence: A mental health perspective for school psychologist School Psychology Review 29(1):86–102
McCloskey L., Walker M., (2000). Posttraumatic stress in children exposed to family violence and single event trauma Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 39(1):108–115
McCloskey L. A. Figueredo A. J., Koss M. P, (1995) The effects of systemic family violence on children’s mental health Child Development 66(5):1239–1262
McFarlane J. M., Groff J. Y., O’Brien J. A., Watson K., (2003), Behaviors of children who are exposed and not exposed to intimate partner violence: An analysis of 330 Black, White, and Hispanic children Pediatrics 112(3):202–207
Miller L., Wasserman G., (1999). Witnessed community violence and antisocial behavior in high-risk urban boys Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 28(1):2–12
Mohr W., Tulman L., (2000). Children exposed to violence: Measurement considerations within an ecological framework Advances in Nursing Science 23(1):59–68
Murata J., (1994) Family stress, social support, violence, and son’s behavior Western Journal of Nursing Research 16(2):154–168
Nader K., Pynoos R., Fairbanks L., Frederick C., (1990). Children’s PTSD reactions one year after a sniper attack at their school American Journal of Psychiatry 147(11):1526–1530
Nir Y., (1985). Post-traumatic stress disorder in children with cancer. In S. Eth, R. S. Pynoos, (Eds) The progress in psychiatry series: Post-traumatic stress disorder in children, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, 121–132
O’Donnell D. A., Schwab-Stone M. E., Muyeed A. Z., (2002). Multidimensional resilience in urban children exposed to community violence Child Development 73(4):1265–1282
O’Keefe M., (1994). Linking marital violence, mother–child/ father–child aggression, and child behavior problems Journal of Family Violence 9(1):63–78
Osofsky J. D., Wewers S., Hann D. M., Fick A. C., (1993). Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children? Psychiatry 56:36–45
Osofsky J., Osfsky H., (1998). Children’s exposure to violence: A critical lens for reporting on violence Nieman Reports 52(4):22–25
Price J. H., Telljohann S. K., Dake J. A., Marsico L., Zyla C., (2002). Urban elementary school students’ perceptions of fighting behavior and concerns for personal safety Journal of School Health 72(5):1–17
Pynoos R., Frederick C., Nader K., Arroyo W., Steinberg A., Eth S., Nunez F., Fairbanks L., (1987). Life threat and posttraumatic stress in school-age children Archives of General, Psychiatry 44:1057–1063
Pynoos R. S., Nader K., (1988). Psychological first aid and treatment approach to children exposed to community violence: Research and implications Journal of Traumatic Stress 1(4):445–473
Pynoos R. S., Nader K., (1990). Children’s exposure to violence and traumatic death Psychiatric Annals 20(6):334–344
Pynoos R. S., Goenjian A., Tashjian M., Karakashian M., Manjikan R., Manoukian G., Steinberg A. M., Fairbanks L., (1993). Post-traumatic stress reactions in children after the 1988 Armenian earthquake British Journal of Psychiatry 20(6):334–344
Qualls A. L., Ansley T. N., (1995). The predictive relationships of ITBS and ITED to measures of academic success Educational and Psychological Measurement 55(3):485–498
Richters J. E., Martinez P., (1993). The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence Psychiatry 56:7–21
Shakoor B. H., Chalmers D., (1991). Co-victimization of African-American children who witness violence: Effects on cognitive, emotional, and behavioral development Journal of the National Medical Association 83(3):233–236
Singer M., Miller D., (1999). Contributors to violent behavior among elementary and middle school children Pediatrics 104(4):878–885
Slaughter-Defoe D., Nakagawa K., Takanishi R., Johnson D. T., (1990) Toward a cultural/ecological perspectives on schooling and achievement in African and Asian-American children Child Development 61:363–383
Slovak K., (2002). Gun violence and children: Factors related to exposure and trauma Health and Social Work 27:104–111
Stewart E. A., Simons R. L., Conger R. D., (2002). Assessing neighborhood and social psychological influences on childhood violence in and African-American sample Criminology 40(4):1–21
Straus M. A., (1979). Measuring intra family conflicts and violence: The conflict tactics (CT) scales Journal of Marriage and the Family 41:75–86
Straus M. A., Gelles R. J., (1986). Societal change and change in family violence from 1975 to 1985 as revealed by two national surveys Journal of Marriage and the Family 48:465–479
Terr L., (1981) Psychic trauma in children: Observations following the Chowchilla school bus kidnapping Annual Journal of Psychiatry 138:14–19
Terr L., (1983). Chowchilla revisited: The effects of psychic trauma four years after a school-bus kidnapping Journal of American Academy of child Psychiatry 140:1543–1550
Terr L., (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview American Journal of Psychiatry 146(1):10–20
Walker B., Goodwin N. J., Warren R. C., (1992). Violence: A challenge to the public health community Journal of the National Medical Association 134(6):490–496
Widon C., (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up The American Journal of Psychiatry 156(8):1223–1229
Wolfe D. A., Jaffe P., Wilson S. K., Zak L., (1985) Children of battered women: The relationship of child behavior to family violence and maternal stress Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 53(5):657–665
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Theodre Thompson is affiliated with the Chicago Public Schools, Chicago, IL. Carol Rippey Massat is Associate Professor, Jane Addams College of Social Work, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Thompson, T., Massat, C.R. Experiences of Violence, Post-Traumatic Stress, Academic Achievement and Behavior Problems of Urban African-American Children. Child Adolesc Soc Work J 22, 367–393 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-005-0018-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-005-0018-5