Abstract
Although sexual experiences are normative by young adulthood, individuals continue to explore and develop their sexual behaviors and cognitions across the college years. Thus, perceived consequences of sexual experiences may change. Similarly, characteristics of sexual experiences such as partner type, alcohol use, and sexual behavior type predict perceived consequences, and these associations may change over time. In this study, we addressed links between characteristics of sexual experiences (casual vs. committed partner, heavy alcohol use on sex days, and kissing/touching only vs. oral/penetrative sex) and short-term perceived consequences of sexual experiences (physical satisfaction, emotional intimacy, not satisfied, guilt, not ready), using daily data collected longitudinally across seven college semesters. We also examined whether perceived consequences of sex change across college and whether within-person daily associations between sexual experience characteristics and perceived consequences of sex change across college. An ethnically and racially diverse sample of traditionally aged first year university students (N = 566; 54% female; 98% heterosexual) completed online surveys, yielding 8,838 daily reports about sexual behaviors. Multilevel models indicated that partner type, heavy alcohol use, and sexual behavior type predicted within-person differences in perceived consequences of sex. Interactions between characteristics of sexual experiences and college semester indicated that differences in perceived consequences of sexual experiences with casual versus committed partners lessened over time. The likelihood of reporting physical satisfaction and guilt after only kissing/touching (but not oral/penetrative sex) decreased across college semesters. Findings inform understanding of normative sexual development by demonstrating that perceived consequences and their predictors change across time.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbey, A., Zawacki, T., Buck, P. O., Testa, M., Parks, K., Norris, J., et al. (2002). How does alcohol contribute to sexual assault? Explanations from laboratory and survey data. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 26, 575–581. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02576.x
Berntson, M. A., Hoffman, K. L., & Luff, T. L. (2014). College as context: Influences on interpersonal sexual scripts. Sexuality & Culture, 18, 149–165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-013-9180-7
Chandra, A., Copen, C. E., & Mosher, W. D. (2013). Sexual behavior, sexual attraction, and sexual identity in the United States: Data from the 2006–2010 National Survey of Family Growth. In A. K. Baumle (Ed.), International handbooks of population, international handbook on the demography of sexuality (pp. 45–66). Dordrecht: Springer.
Cooper, M. L. (2002). Alcohol use and risky sexual behavior among college students and youth: Evaluating the evidence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, S101–S117. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.101
Cooper, M. L., Shapiro, C. M., & Powers, A. M. (1998). Motivations for sex and risky sexual behavior among adolescents and young adults: A functional perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1528–1558. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1528
Correa, A. B., Castro, Á., Barrada, J. R., & Ruiz-Gómez, P. (2017). Sociodemographic and psychosexual characteristics of students from a Spanish university who engage in casual sex. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 14, 445–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-017-0274-0
Courtney, K. E., & Polich, J. (2009). Binge drinking in young adults: Data, definitions, and determinants. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 142–156. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014414
Derrick, J. L., Leonard, K. E., Quigley, B. M., Houston, R. J., Testa, M., & Kubiak, A. (2010). Relationship-specific alcohol expectancies in couples with concordant and discrepant drinking patterns. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71, 761–768. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2010.71.761
Edwards, W. M., & Coleman, E. (2004). Defining sexual health: A descriptive overview. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33, 189–195. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ASEB.0000026619.95734.d5
Eshbaugh, E. M., & Gute, G. (2008). Hookups and sexual regret among college women. Journal of Social Psychology, 148, 77–89. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.148.1.77-90
Fairlie, A. M., Garcia, T. A., Lee, C. M., & Lewis, M. A. (2018). Alcohol use and alcohol/marijuana use during the most recent sexual experience differentially predict characteristics of the sexual experience among sexually active young adult drinkers. Addictive Behaviors, 82, 105–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.027
Fielder, R. L., Walsh, J. L., Carey, K. B., & Carey, M. P. (2014). Sexual hookups and adverse health outcomes: A longitudinal study of first-year college women. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.848255
Garcia, J. R., Reiber, C., Massey, S. G., & Merriwether, A. M. (2012). Sexual hookup culture: A review. Review of General Psychology, 16(2), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027911
Green, A. I., & Halkitis, P. N. (2006). Crystal methamphetamine and sexual sociality in an urban gay subculture: An elective affinity. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 8, 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050600783320
Gute, G., & Eshbaugh, E. M. (2008). Personality as a predictor of hooking up among college students. Journal of Community Health Nursing, 25, 26–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/07370010701836385
Halpern, C. T. (2010). Reframing research on adolescent sexuality: Healthy sexual development as part of the life course. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 42, 6–7. https://doi.org/10.1363/4200610
Harden, K. P. (2014). A sex-positive framework for research on adolescent sexuality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9, 455–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614535934
Heaven, P. C., Fitzpatrick, J., Craig, F. L., Kelly, P., & Sebar, G. (2000). Five personality factors and sex: Preliminary findings. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 1133–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00163-4
Hensel, D. J., Fortenberry, J. D., & Orr, D. P. (2008). Variations in coital and noncoital sexual repertoire among adolescent women. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42, 170–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.07.009
Herbenick, D., Reece, M., Schick, V., Sanders, S. A., Dodge, B., & Fortenberry, J. D. (2010). Sexual behavior in the United States: Results from a national probability sample of men and women ages 14–94. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7, 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02012.x
Humphris, G. M., & Kaney, S. (2001). Assessing the development of communication skills in undergraduate medical students. Medical Education, 35, 225–231. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2001.00869.x
Impett, E. A., Peplau, L. A., & Gable, S. L. (2005). Approach and avoidance sexual motives: Implications for personal and interpersonal well-being. Personal Relationships, 12, 465–482. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.327
Jackson, K. M., Sher, K. J., Gotham, H. J., & Wood, P. K. (2001). Transitioning into and out of large-effect drinking in young adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 378–391. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843X.110.3.378
Kilwein, T. M., Kern, S. M., & Looby, A. (2017). Interventions for alcohol-related risky sexual behaviors among college students: A systematic review. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 31, 944–950. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000294
LaBrie, J., Earleywine, M., Schiffman, J., Pedersen, E., & Marriot, C. (2005). Effects of alcohol, expectancies, and partner type on condom use in college males: Event-level analyses. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 259–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490509552280
LaBrie, J. W., Hummer, J. F., Ghaidarov, T. M., Lac, A., & Kenney, S. R. (2014). Hooking up in the college context: The event-level effects of alcohol use and partner familiarity on hookup behaviors and contentment. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.714010
Lefkowitz, E. S., Vasilenko, S. A., Wesche, R., & Maggs, J. L. (2019). Changes in diverse sexual and contraceptive behaviors across college. Journal of Sex Research, 56, 965–976. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1499854
Lewis, M. A., Granato, H., Blayney, J. A., Lostutter, T. W., & Kilmer, J. R. (2012). Predictors of hooking up sexual behaviors and emotional reactions among US college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 1219–1229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9817-2
Lewis, M. A., Litt, D. M., Cronce, J. M., Blayney, J. A., & Gilmore, A. K. (2014). Underestimating protection and overestimating risk: Examining descriptive normative perceptions and their association with drinking and sexual behaviors. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 86–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.710664
Linden-Carmichael, A. N., Lau-Barraco, C., & Kelley, M. L. (2016). College student dating partner drinking profiles: Differences in relationship functioning and relationship-specific alcohol expectancies. Substance Use & Misuse, 51, 840–852. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2016.1155613
Lyons, H. A., Manning, W. D., Longmore, M. A., & Giordano, P. C. (2015). Gender and casual sexual activity from adolescence to emerging adulthood: Social and life course correlates. Journal of Sex Research, 52(5), 543–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.906032
Lyons, H. A., Manning, W. D., Longmore, M. A., & Giordano, P. C. (2014). Young adult casual sexual behavior: Life-course-specific motivations and consequences. Sociological Perspectives, 57, 79–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121413517557
Maisto, S. A., Carey, M. P., Carey, K. B., & Gordon, C. M. (2002). The effects of alcohol and expectancies on risk perception and behavioral skills relevant to safer sex among heterosexual young adult women. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 63, 476–485. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2002.63.476
Malacad, B. L., & Hess, G. C. (2010). Oral sex: Behaviors and feelings of Canadian young women and implications for sex education. European Journal of Contraception and Reproductive Health Care, 15, 177–185. https://doi.org/10.3109/13625181003797298
Manning, W. D., Longmore, M. A., & Giordano, P. C. (2005). Adolescents’ involvement in non-romantic sexual activity. Social Science Research, 34, 384–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2004.03.001
Muthén, B. O., & Muthén, L. K. (2000). The development of heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems from ages 18 to 37 in a US national sample. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 290–300. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2000.61.290
Napper, L. E., Kenney, S. R., & LaBrie, J. W. (2015). The longitudinal relationships among injunctive norms and hooking up attitudes and behaviors in college students. Journal of Sex Research, 52, 499–506. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.952809
Force, N. G. T. (2004). Guidelines for comprehensive sexuality education: Kindergarten-12th grade. New York: SIECUS.
O’Donovan, A. (2009). Sex and sexuality across the lifespan. In C. Butler, A. O’Donovan, & E. Shaw (Eds.), Sex, sexuality and therapeutic practice: A manual for therapists and trainers (pp. 147–177). New York: Routledge.
O’Malley, P. M., & Johnston, L. D. (2002). Epidemiology of alcohol and other drug use among American college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14, S23–S39. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsas.2002.s14.23
Orchowski, L. M., Mastroleo, N. R., & Borsari, B. (2012). Correlates of alcohol-related regretted sex among college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26, 782–790. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027840
Oswalt, S. B., Cameron, K. A., & Koob, J. J. (2005). Sexual regret in college students. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 663–669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-7920-y
Patrick, M. E., Maggs, J. L., Cooper, M. L., & Lee, C. M. (2011). Measurement of motivations for and against sexual behavior. Assessment, 18, 502–516. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191110372298
Paul, E. L., & Hayes, K. A. (2002). The casualties of ‘casual’ sex: A qualitative exploration of the phenomenology of college students’ hookups. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19, 639–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407502195006
Peugh, J., & Belenko, S. (2001). Alcohol, drugs and sexual function: A review. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 33(3), 223–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2001.10400569
Regan, P. C., Durvasula, R., Howell, L., Ureño, O., & Rea, M. (2004). Gender, ethnicity, and the developmental timing of first sexual and romantic experiences. Social Behavior and Personality, 32, 667–676. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2004.32.7.667
Schalet, A. T. (2011). Beyond abstinence and risk: A new paradigm for adolescent sexual health. Women’s Health Issues, 21, S5–S7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2011.01.007
Schwartz, C., Fast, D., & Knight, R. (2020). Poppers, queer sex and a Canadian crackdown: Examining the experiences of alkyl nitrite use among young sexual minority men. International Journal of Drug Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102670
Scott-Sheldon, L. A., Terry, D. L., Carey, K. B., Garey, L., & Carey, M. P. (2012). Efficacy of expectancy challenge interventions to reduce college student drinking: A meta-analytic review. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26, 393–405. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027565
Shulman, S., & Connolly, J. (2013). The challenge of romantic relationships in emerging adulthood: Reconceptualization of the field. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696812467330
Skinner, S. R., Smith, J., Fenwick, J., Fyfe, S., & Hendriks, J. (2008). Perceptions and experiences of first sexual intercourse in Australian adolescent females. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43, 593–599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.04.017
Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005
Stoner, S. A., George, W. H., Peters, L. M., & Norris, J. (2007). Liquid courage: Alcohol fosters risky sexual decision-making in individuals with sexual fears. AIDS and Behavior, 11, 227–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027840
Tolman, D. L., & McClelland, S. I. (2011). Normative sexuality development in adolescence: A decade in review, 2000–2009. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 242–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00726.x
U.S. Census Bureau. (2019). Historical marital status tables. Retrieved 10 June, 2020 from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/time-series/demo/families/marital.html.
Vasilenko, S. A., Maas, M. K., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2015). “It felt good but weird at the same time”: Emerging adults’ first experiences of six different sexual behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30, 586–606. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558414561298
Vasilenko, S. A., & Lefkowitz, E. S. (2018). Sexual behavior and daily affect in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 6, 191–199. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696818767503
Vasilenko, S. A., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Maggs, J. L. (2012). Short-term positive and negative consequences of sex based on daily reports among college students. Journal of Sex Research, 49, 558–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.589101
Vrangalova, Z., & Ong, A. D. (2014). Who benefits from casual sex? The moderating role of sociosexuality. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 5, 883–891. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614537308
Wesche, R., Claxton, S. E., Lefkowitz, E. S., & van Dulmen, M. H. M. (2018). Evaluations and future plans after casual sexual experiences: Differences across partner type. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 1180–1191. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1298714
Wesche, R., Lefkowitz, E. S., & Vasilenko, S. A. (2017). Latent classes of sexual behaviors: Prevalence, predictors, and consequences. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 14, 100–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-016-0228-y
Wesche, R., Walsh, J. L., Shepardson, R. L., Carey, K. B., & Carey, M. P. (2019). The association between sexual behavior and affect: Moderating factors in young women. Journal of Sex Research, 56, 1058–1069. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1542657
White, H. R., Fleming, C. B., Catalano, R. F., & Bailey, J. A. (2009). Prospective associations among alcohol use-related sexual enhancement expectancies, sex after alcohol use, and casual sex. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 23, 702–707. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016630
Wiebe, E., & Just, A. (2019). How cannabis alters sexual experience: A survey of men and women. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 16, 1758–1762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2019.07.023
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., See, L., & O’Sullivan, L. (2015). Young women’s satisfaction with sex and romance, and emotional reactions to sex: Associations with sexual entitlement, efficacy, and situational factors. Emerging Adulthood, 3, 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696814548060
Funding
This research was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (R01 AA016016, T32 MH019985, and P30 MH052776).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Institutional Review Board of the authors’ university and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wesche, R., Lefkowitz, E.S. & Maggs, J.L. Short-Term Consequences of Sex: Contextual Predictors and Change Across College. Arch Sex Behav 50, 1613–1626 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01874-w
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01874-w