Abstract
Individuals higher in dispositional mindfulness, a quality of non-judgmental attention to the present moment, fare better than their less mindful counterparts on a wide range of psychological and interpersonal outcomes. However, remarkably little is known about the potential influence of dispositional mindfulness on sexual outcomes. Here we investigated whether dispositional mindfulness was associated with a range of sexual outcomes, including sexual satisfaction, sexual hyperactivation (heightened sexual desire and worry), sexual deactivation (suppression of sexual desire and behavior), and problematic pornography use. We also tested whether capacity for emotion regulation was the mechanism underlying the mindfulness–sexual outcome association. These hypotheses were tested in two samples: a sample of adults in a committed romantic relationship (N = 407) and a group of adults who were long-term single (N = 400). Across both samples, dispositional mindfulness predicted more adaptive sexual outcomes, and emotion regulation generally mediated these associations. Of particular importance, the positive effects of dispositional mindfulness on sexual outcomes appear to generalize across relationship statuses, with both partnered and long-term single individuals displaying a similar pattern of results. These findings highlight that high dispositional mindfulness may predict a range of positive sexual outcomes in both partnered and single individuals.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arch, J. J., & Craske, M. G. (2006). Mechanisms of mindfulness: Emotion regulation following a focused breathing induction. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1849–1858. https://doi.org/10.10146/j.brat.2005.12.007.
Arora, N., & Brotto, L. A. (2017). How does paying attention improve sexual functioning in women? A review of mechanisms. Sexual Medicine Reviews, 5, 266–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sxmr.2017.01.005.
Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 125–143. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg015.
Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J., & Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13, 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191105283504.
Bancroft, J., Graham, C. A., Janssen, E., & Sanders, S. A. (2009). The dual control model: Current status and future directions. Journal of Sex Research, 46, 121–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490902747222.
Barnes, S., Brown, K. W., Krusemark, E., Campbell, W. K., & Rogge, R. D. (2007). The role of mindfulness in romantic relationship satisfaction and responses to relationship stress. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 33, 482–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2007.00033.x.
Birnbaum, G. E., Mikulincer, M., Szepsenwol, O., Shaver, P. R., & Mizrahi, M. (2014). When sex goes wrong: A behavioral systems perspective on individual differences in sexual attitudes, motives, feelings, and behaviors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 822–842. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036021.
Bridges, A. J., & Morokoff, P. J. (2010). Sexual media use and relational satisfaction in heterosexual couples. Personal Relationships, 18, 562–585. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2010.01328.x.
Brotto, L. A., Chivers, M. L., Millman, R. D., & Albert, A. (2016). Mindfulness-based sex therapy improves genital-subjective arousal concordance in women with sexual desire/arousal difficulties. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 1907–1921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0689-8.
Brotto, L. A., Erskine, Y., Carey, M., Ehlen, T., Finlayson, S., Heywood, M., & Miller, D. (2012). A brief mindfulness-based cognitive behavioral intervention improves sexual functioning versus wait-list control in women treated for gynecologic cancer. Gynecologic Oncology, 125, 320–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygyno.2012.01.035.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822–848. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.822.
Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswll, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400701598298.
Buhrmester, M., Kwang, T., & Gosling, S. D. (2011). Amazon’s Mechanical Turk: A new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610393980.
Buss, D. M., & Kenrick, D. T. (1998). Evolutionary social psychology. In D. T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (pp. 982–1026). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Byers, E. S. (2005). Relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study of individuals in long-term relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 42, 113–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490509552264.
Byers, E. S., Demmons, S., & Lawrance, K. (1998). Sexual satisfaction within dating relationships: A test of the Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 15, 257–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407598152008.
Caldwell, J. G., & Shaver, P. R. (2013). Mediators of the link between adult attachment and mindfulness. Interpersona, 7, 299–310. https://doi.org/10.5964/ijpr.v7i2.133.
DePaulo, B. (2014). A singles studies perspective on mount marriage. Psychological Inquiry, 25, 64–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840.X.2014.878173.
Fisher, W. A., Donohue, K. L., Long, J. S., Heiman, J. R., Rosen, R. C., & Sand, M. S. (2015). Individual and partner correlates of sexual satisfaction and relationship happiness in midlife couples: Dyadic analysis of the internation survey of relationships. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 1609–1620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0426-8.
Germer, C. K., Siegel, R. D., & Fulton, P. R. (2005). Mindfulness and psychotherapy. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94.
Grello, C. M., Welsh, D. P., & Harper, M. S. (2006). No strings attached: The nature of casual sex in college students. Journal of Sex Research, 43, 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490609552324.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.
Hazan, C., & Zeifman, D. (1994). Sex and the psychological tether. In K. Bartholomew & D. Perlman (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships. Vol. 5. Attachment processes in adulthood (pp. 151–178). London: Jessica Kingsley.
Herbenick, D., Reece, M., Schick, V., Sanders, S. A., Dodge, B., & Fortenberry, J. D. (2010). Sexual behavior in the United States: Results from a national probability sample of men and women ages 14–94. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7, 255–265. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02012.x.
Hölzel, B. K., Lazar, S. W., Gard, T., Schuman-Olivier, Z., Vago, D. R., & Ott, U. (2011). How does mindfulness meditation work? Proposing mechanisms of action from a conceptual and neural perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 537–559. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611419671.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are. New York, NY: Hyperion.
Kabat-Zinn, J. (2003). Mindfulness-based interventions in context: Past, present, and future. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 144–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg016.
Karremans, J. C., Schellekens, M. P. J., & Kappen, G. (2017). Bridging the sciences of mindfulness and romantic relationships: A theoretical model and research agenda. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 21, 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868315615450.
Keng, S., Smoski, M. J., & Robins, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: A review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 1041–1056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006.
Khaddouma, A., Gordon, K. C., & Bolden, J. (2015). Zen and the art of sex: Examining associations among mindfulness, sexual satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction in dating relationships. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 30, 268–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2014.992408.
Kor, A., Zilcha-Mano, S., Fogel, Y. A., Mikulincer, M., Reid, R. C., & Potenza, M. N. (2014). Psychometric development of the Problematic Pornography Use scale. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 861–868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.027.
Litzinger, S., & Gordon, K. C. (2005). Exploring relationships among communication, sexual satisfaction, and marital satisfaction. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 31, 409–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926230591006719.
Mark, K. P., Garcia, J. R., & Fisher, H. E. (2015). Perceived emotional and sexual satisfaction across sexual relationship contexts: Gender and sexual orientation differences and similarities. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 24, 120–130. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.242-A8.
Mark, K. P., Herbenick, D., Fortenberry, D., Sanders, S., & Reece, M. (2013). A psychometric comparison of three scales and a single-item measure to assess sexual satisfaction. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.816261.
Masters, W. H., & Johnson, V. E. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Company.
McCabe, M., Althof, S. E., Assalian, P., Chevret-Measson, M., Leiblum, S. R., Simonelli, C., & Wylie, K. (2010). Psychological and interpersonal dimensions of sexual function and dysfunction. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7, 327–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01618.x.
McNulty, J. K., Wenner, C. A., & Fisher, T. D. (2016). Longitudinal associations among relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and frequency of sex in early marriage. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 45, 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0444-6.
Newcombe, B. C., & Weaver, A. D. (2016). Mindfulness, cognitive distraction, and sexual well-being in women. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 25, 99–108. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.252-A3.
Ostovich, J. M., & Sabini, J. (2004). How are sociosexuality, sex drive, and lifetime number of sexual partners related? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1255–1266. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204264754.
Paterson, L. Q., Handy, A. B., & Brotto, L. A. (2017). A pilot study of eight-session mindfulness-based cognitive therapy adapted for women’s sexual interest/arousal disorder. Journal of Sex Research, 54, 850–861. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1208800.
Pepping, C. A., Davis, P. J., & MacDonald, G. (2017). Toward a psychology of singlehood: An attachment theoretical perspective on long-term singlehood. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Pepping, C. A., Davis, P. J., & O’Donovan, A. (2013). Individual differences in attachment and dispositional mindfulness: The mediating role of emotion regulation. Personality and Individual Differences, 54, 453–456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.006.
Pepping, C. A., O’Donovan, A., Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., & Hanisch, M. (2014). Is emotion regulation the process underlying the relationship between low mindfulness and psychosocial distress? Australian Journal of Psychology, 66, 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12050.
Perry, S. L. (2017). Does viewing pornography reduce marital quality over time? Evidence from longitudinal data. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 549–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0770-y.
Poulsen, F. O., Busby, D. M., & Galovan, A. M. (2013). Pornography use: Who uses it and how it is associated with couple outcomes. Journal of Sex Research, 50, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022449.2011.648027.
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36, 717–731. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206553.
Reece, M., Herbenick, D., Dodge, B., Sanders, S. A., Ghassemi, A., & Fortenberry, J. D. (2010). Vibrator use among heterosexual men varies by partnership status: Results from a nationally representative study in the United States. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 36, 389–407. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2010.510774.
Regnerus, M., Gordon, D., & Price, J. (2016). Documenting pornography use in America: A comparative analysis of methodological approaches. Journal of Sex Research, 53(7), 873–881. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2015.1096886.
Rellini, A. H., Vujanovic, A. A., Gilbert, M., & Zvolensky, M. J. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and difficulties in emotion regulation: Associations with sexual and relationship satisfaction among young adult women. Journal of Sex Research, 49, 434–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/0022499.2011.565430.
Sanchez-Fuentes, M. D. M., Santos-Iglesias, P., & Sierra, J. C. (2014). A systematic review of sexual satisfaction. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 14, 67–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1697-2600(14)70038-9.
Santtila, P., Wager, I., Witting, K., Harlaar, N., Jern, P., Johansson, A., … Sandnabba, N. K. (2008). Discrepancies between sexual desire and sexual activity: Gender differences and associations with relationship satisfaction. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 34, 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/00926230701620548.
Schachner, D. A., Shaver, P. R., & Gillath, O. (2008). Attachment style and long-term singlehood. Personal Relationships, 15, 479–491. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2008.00211.x.
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2006). A behavioral systems approach to romantic love relationships: Attachment, caregiving, and sex. In R. J. Sternberg & K. Weis (Eds.), The psychology of love (pp. 35–64). New Heaven, MS: Yale University Press.
Sprecher, S. (2002). Sexual satisfaction in premarital relationships: Associations with satisfaction, love, commitment, and stability. Journal of Sex Research, 39, 190–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490209552141.
Sprecher, S., & Cate, R. M. (2005). Sexual satisfaction and sexual expression as predictors of relationship satisfaction and stability. In J. H. Harvey, A. Wenzel, & S. Sprecher (Eds.), The handbook of sexuality in close relationships (pp. 235–256). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Stephenson, K. R. (2017). Mindfulness-based therapies for sexual dysfunction: A review of potential theory-based mechanisms of change. Mindfulness, 8, 527–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0552-3.
Szepsenwol, O., Mizrahi, M., & Birnbaum, G. E. (2015). Fatal suppression: The detrimental effects of sexual and attachment deactivation within emerging romantic relationships. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 504–512. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615572636.
U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Retrieved from: https://www.census.gov/2010census/.
Wachs, K., & Cordova, J. V. (2007). Mindful relating: Exploring mindfulness and emotion repertoires in intimate relationships. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 33, 464–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-0606.2007.00032.x.
Waite, L. J., & Gallagher, M. (2002). The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier, and better off financially. New York, NY: First Broadway Books.
Weiner, L., & Avery-Clark, C. (2014). Sensate focus: Clarifying the Masters and Johnson’s model. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 29(3), 307–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2014.892920.
Wright, P. J., Steffen, N. J., & Sun, C. (2017). Is the relationship between pornography consumption frequency and lower sexual satisfaction curvilinear? Results from England and Germany. Journal of Sex Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1347912.
Yeh, H., Lorenz, F. O., Wickrama, K. A. S., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (2006). Relationships among sexual satisfaction, marital quality, and marital instability at midlife. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 339–343. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.20.2.339.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Standard
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pepping, C.A., Cronin, T.J., Lyons, A. et al. The Effects of Mindfulness on Sexual Outcomes: The Role of Emotion Regulation. Arch Sex Behav 47, 1601–1612 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1127-x
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1127-x