Skip to main content
Log in

Traits of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Adults with Gender Dysphoria

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The literature examining the co-occurrence of gender dysphoria (GD) and autistic traits has so far been limited to a series of small case studies and two systematic studies, one looking at autistic traits in gender dysphoric children and the other set within the context of the extreme male brain hypothesis and looking at adults. The current study examined this co-occurrence of GD and autistic traits in an adult population, to see whether this heightened prevalence persisted from childhood as well as to provide further comparison of MtF versus FtM transsexuals and homosexual versus nonhomosexual individuals. Using the Autistic Spectrum Quotient (AQ), 91 GD adults (63 male-to-female [MtF] and 28 female-to-male [FtM]) undertaking treatment at a gender clinic completed the AQ. The prevalence of autistic traits consistent with a clinical diagnosis for an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) was 5.5 % (n = 3 MtF and n = 2 FtM) compared to reports of clinical diagnoses of 0.5–2.0 % in the general population. In contrast to the single previous report in adults, there was no significant difference between MtF and FtM on AQ scores; however, all of those who scored above the clinical cut-off were classified as nonhomosexual with respect to natal sex. Results were considered in the context of emerging theories for the observed co-occurrence of GD and autistic traits.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Effect size, d, was calculated as follows: M1 − M2/[(SD1 * N1) + (SD2 * N2)/(N1 + N2)].

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Auyeung, B., Baron-Cohen, S., Ashwin, E., Knickmeyer, R., Taylor, K., Hackett, G., & Hines, M. (2009). Fetal testosterone predicts sexually differentiated childhood behaviour in girls and in boys. Psychological Science, 20, 144–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 248–254.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Skinner, R., Martin, J., & Clubley, E. (2001). The Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ): Evidence from Asperger syndrome/high functioning autism, males and females, scientists and mathematicians. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31, 5–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R. (1985). Typology of male-to-female transsexualism. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 247–261.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, R. (1988). Nonhomosexual gender dysphoria. Journal of Sex Research, 24, 188–193.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg, S. J., Bramlet, M. D., Kogan, M. D., Schieve, L. A., Jones, J. R., & Lu, M. C. (2013). Changes in prevalence of parent-reported autism spectrum disorder in school-aged U.S. children: 2007–2012. National Health Statistics Reports, 65, 1–11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Vries, A. L. C., Noens, I. L. J., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., van Berckelaer-Onnes, I. A., & Doreleijers, T. A. (2010). Autism spectrum disorders in gender dysphoric children and adolescents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 930–936.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fombonne, E. (2005). Epidemiology of autistic disorder and other pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66(Suppl. 10), 3–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gallucci, G., Hackerman, F., & Schmidt, C. W. (2005). Gender identity disorder in an adult male with Asperger syndrome. Sexuality and Disability, 23, 35–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hines, M., Brook, C., & Conway, G. S. (2004). Androgen and psychosexual development: Core gender identity, sexual orientation, and recalled childhood gender role behavior in women and men with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Journal of Sex Research, 41, 75–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Mawhood, L., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language Disorder—A follow-up comparison in early adult life. II: Social, behavioural and psychiatric outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 561–578.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, R. M., Wheelwright, S., Farrell, K., Martin, E., Green, R., Di Ceglie, D., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2012). Female-to-male transsexual people and autistic traits. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 301–306.

  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knickmeyer, R., Baron-Cohen, S., Fane, B. A., Wheelwright, S., Matthews, G. A., Conway, G. S., et al. (2006). Androgens and autistic traits: A study of individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 148–153.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer, B., Delsignore, A., Gundelfinger, R., Schnyder, U., & Hepp, U. (2005). Comorbidity of Asperger syndrome and gender identity disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 292–296.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Landén, M., & Rasmussen, P. (1997). Gender identity disorder in a girl with autism—A case report. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 6, 170–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lawrence, A. A. (2010). Sexual orientation versus age of onset as bases for typologies (subtypes) for gender identity disorder in adolescents and adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 514–545.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mukaddes, N. M. (2002). Gender identity problems in autistic children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 28, 529–532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasterski, V., Golombok, S., & Hines, M. (2011) Sex differences in social behaviour. In P. Smith & C. Hart (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (2nd ed.) (pp. 117–136). Oxford: Blackwell.

  • Perera, H., Gadambanathan, T., & Weerasiri, S. (2003). Gender identity disorder presenting in a girl with Asperger’s disorder and obsessive compulsive disorder. Ceylon Medical Journal, 48, 57–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robinow, O., & Knudson, G. A. (2005, April). Asperger’s disorder and GID. Paper presented at the meeting of the Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association, Bologna, Italy.

  • Smith, Y. L. S., van Goozen, S. H. M., Kuiper, A. J., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2005). Transsexual subtypes: Clinical and theoretical significance. Psychiatry Research, 137, 151–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tateno, M., Ikeda, J., & Saito, T. (2011). Gender dysphoria in pervasive developmental disorders. Shishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi, 113, 1173–1183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tateno, M., Tateno, Y., & Saito, T. (2008). Comorbid childhood gender identity disorder in a boy with Asperger syndrome. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 62, 238.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P. G., Allard, A. M., & Sears, L. (1996). Case study: Cross-gender preoccupations with two male children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 635–642.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodbury-Smith, M., Robinson, J., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2005). Screening adults for Asperger syndrome using the AQ: Diagnostic validity in clinical practice. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35, 331–335.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zucker, K. J., & Lawrence, A. A. (2009). Epidemiology of gender identity disorder: Recommendations for the Standards of Care of the World Professional Association for Transgender Health. International Journal of Transgenderism, 11, 8–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the UK Gender Identity Research and Education Society (GIRES).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vickie Pasterski.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Pasterski, V., Gilligan, L. & Curtis, R. Traits of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Adults with Gender Dysphoria. Arch Sex Behav 43, 387–393 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0154-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0154-5

Keywords

Navigation