Skip to main content
Log in

On the Relation Between 2D:4D and Sex-Dimorphic Personality Traits

  • ORIGINAL PAPER: MINOT SPECIAL ISSUE
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Several personality traits, including aggressiveness and sensation seeking, have been hypothesized to be influenced by prenatal androgen exposure, though evidence for this proposition is limited. We investigated whether individual differences in aggressiveness, sensation seeking, and several prosocial personality traits can be predicted from differences in the 2D:4D digit ratio, a putative marker of prenatal androgen activity. A total of 164 undergraduates (87 men, 77 women) completed self-report measures of physical and verbal aggression, as well as a standardized measure of sensation seeking, and five scales to assess empathy, nurturance, expressivity/femininity, instrumentality/masculinity, and assertiveness. Two sex-dimorphic tests of spatial ability also were included. Men had a lower 2D:4D ratio than women, confirming the typical sex difference in digit proportions. Significant sex differences were observed on 10 of the 11 personality scales purported to show sex differences and on both tests of spatial ability. The 2D:4D ratio was a significant predictor of scores on three of the four aggression subscales, total aggression, thrill and adventure seeking, and total sensation-seeking, in the sample as a whole and in women. In men, correlations with 2D:4D were significant only for total sensation-seeking and verbal aggression. In both sexes, lower 2D:4D ratios were associated with increased aggressiveness and sensation seeking. For the spatial tests, there was no evidence of any association with 2D:4D in either men or women. The 2D:4D digit ratio may be a valid, though weak, predictor of selective sex-dependent traits that are sensitive to testosterone.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aluja, A., & Torrubia, R. (2004). Hostility-aggressiveness, sensation seeking, and sex hormones in men: Re-exploring their relationship. Neuropsychobiology, 50, 102–107.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8, 291–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J., Manning, J. T., McInroy, K., & Mathews, E. (2002). A preliminary investigation of the associations between personality, cognitive ability and digit ratio. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 1115–1124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey, A. A., & Hurd, P. L. (2005). Finger length ratio (2D:4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women. Biological Psychology, 68, 215–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benderlioglu, Z., & Nelson, R. J. (2004). Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men. Hormones and Behavior, 46, 558–564.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berenbaum, S. A., & Resnick, S. M. (1997). Early androgen effects on aggression in children and adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 22, 505–515.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breedlove, S. M., & Hampson, E. (2002). Sexual differentiation of the brain and behavior. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, D. Crews, & M. M. McCarthy (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology (2nd ed., pp. 75–114). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W. M., Hines, M., Fane, B. A., & Breedlove, S. M. (2002). Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior, 42, 380–386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buck, J. J., Williams, R. M., Hughes, I. A., & Acerini, C. L. (2003). In-utero androgen exposure and 2nd to 4th digit length ratio: Comparisons between healthy controls and females with classical congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Human Reproduction, 18, 976–979.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, L. A., Henninger, D., & Hafetz, J. (2005). Gender differences in relations of mental rotation, verbal fluency, and SAT scores to finger length ratios as hormonal indexes. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 493–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H., & Perry, M. (1992). The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 452–459.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carson, D. J., Okuno, A., Lee, P. A., Stetten, G., Didolkar, S. M., & Migeon, C. J. (1982). Amniotic fluid steroid levels: Fetuses with adrenal hyperplasia, 46, XXY fetuses, and normal fetuses. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 136, 218–222.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen-Bendahan, C. C. C., Buitelaar, J. K., van Goozen, S. H. M., Orlebeke, J. F., & Cohen-Kettenis, P. T. (2005). Is there an effect of prenatal testosterone on aggression and other behavioral traits? A study comparing same-sex and opposite-sex twin girls. Hormones and Behavior, 47, 230–237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Collaer, M. L., & Hines, M. (1995). Human behavioral sex differences: A role for gonadal hormones during early development? Psychological Bulletin, 118, 55–107.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coolican, J., & Peters, M. (2003). Sexual dimorphism in the 2D/4D ratio and its relation to mental rotation performance. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 179–183.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csathó, A., Osváth, A., Karádi, K., Bicsák, E., Manning, J., & Kállai, J. (2003). Spatial navigation related to the ratio of second to fourth digit length in women. Learning and Individual Differences, 13, 239–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daitzman, R. J., & Zuckerman, M. (1980). Disinhibitory sensation seeking, personality, and gonadal hormones. Personality and Individual Differences, 1, 103–110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daitzman, R. J., Zuckerman, M., Sammelwitz, P., & Ganjam, V. (1978). Sensation seeking and gonadal hormones. Journal of Biosocial Science, 10, 401–408.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ecker, A. (1875). Some remarks about a varying character in the hands of humans. Archives of Anthropology (Braunschweig), 8, 68–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekstrom, R. B., French, J., Harman, H. H., & Derman, D. (1976). Kit of factor-referenced cognitive tests. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., Manning, J. T., & Neave, N. (2004). Second to fourth digit ratio and the “Big Five” personality factors. Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 495–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fink, B., Neave, N., Laughton, K., & Manning, J. T. (2006). Second to fourth digit ratio and sensation seeking. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 1253–1262.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429–456.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forest, M. G. (1985). Pitfalls in prenatal diagnosis of 21-hydroxylase deficiency by amniotic fluid steroid analysis? A six years experience in 102 pregnancies at risk. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 458, 130–147.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forest, M. G., de Peretti, E., & Bertrand, J. (1976). Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal relationships in man from birth to puberty. Clinical Endocrinology, 5, 551–569.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garn, S. M., Burdi, A.R., Babler, W. J., & Stinson, S. (1975). Early prenatal attainment of adult metacarpal-phalangeal rankings and proportions. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 43, 327–332.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gerra, G., Avanzini, P., Zaimovic, A., Sartori, R., Bocchi, C., Timpano, M., et al. (1999). Neurotransmitters, neuroendocrine correlates of sensation-seeking temperament in normal humans. Neuropsychobiology, 39, 207–213.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, S. K., Lindemulder, E. A., & Sathyan, G. (2000). Modeling of circadian testosterone in healthy men and hypogonadal men. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 40, 731–738.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grimshaw, G. M., Sitarenios, G., & Finegan, J. K. (1995). Mental rotation at 7 years: Relations with prenatal testosterone levels and spatial play experiences. Brain and Cognition, 29, 85–100.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hampson, E. (2002). Sex differences in human brain and cognition: The influence of sex steroids in early and adult life. In J. B. Becker, S. M. Breedlove, D. Crews, & M. M. McCarthy (Eds.), Behavioral endocrinology (2nd ed., pp. 579–628). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hampson, E., & Kimura, D. (1988). Reciprocal effects of hormonal fluctuations on human motor and perceptual-spatial skills. Behavioral Neuroscience, 102, 456–459.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hampson, E., Rovet, J. F., & Altmann, D. (1998). Spatial reasoning in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14, 299–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, J. A., Rushton, J. P., Hampson, E., & Jackson, D. N. (1996). Salivary testosterone and self-report aggressive and pro-social personality characteristics in men and women. Aggressive Behavior, 22, 321–331.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hausmann, M., Slabbekoorn, D., van Goozen, S. H. M., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., & Güntürkün, O. (2000). Sex hormones affect spatial abilities during the menstrual cycle. Behavioral Neuroscience, 114, 1245–1250.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Helleday, J., Bartfai, A., Ritzen, E. M., & Forsman, M. (1994). General intelligence and cognitive profile in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). Psychoneuroendocrinology, 19, 343–356.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hines, M., Fane, B. A., Pasterski, V. L., Mathews, G. A., Conway, G. S., & Brook, C. (2003). Spatial abilities following prenatal androgen abnormality: Targeting and mental rotations performance in individuals with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 1010–1026.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hönekopp, J., Bartholdt, L., Beier, L., & Liebert, A. (2007). Second to fourth digit length ratio (2D:4D) and adult sex hormone levels: New data and a meta-analytic review. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 32, 313–321.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hyde, J. S. (1986). Gender differences in aggression. In J. S. Hyde & M. C. Linn (Eds.), The psychology of gender: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 51–66). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, D.N. (1987). Personality Research Form, Form E. Port Huron, MI: Research Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kempel, P., Gohlke, B., Klempau, J., Zinsberger, P., Reuter, M., & Hennig, J. (2005). Second-to-fourth digit length, testosterone and spatial ability. Intelligence, 33, 215–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2002). Gender, nature, and nurture. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lippa, R. A. (2006). Finger lengths, 2D:4D ratios, and their relation to gender-related personality traits and the Big Five. Biological Psychology, 71, 116–121.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lutchmaya, S., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, P., Knickmeyer, R., & Manning, J. T. (2004). 2nd to 4th digit ratios, fetal testosterone and estradiol. Early Human Development, 77, 23–38.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maki, P. M., Rich, J. B., & Rosenbaum, R. S. (2002). Implicit memory varies across the menstrual cycle: Estrogen effects in young women. Neuropsychologia, 40, 518–529.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malas, M. A., Dogan, S., Evcil, E. H., & Desdicioglu, K. (2006). Fetal development of the hand, digits and digit ratio (2D:4D). Early Human Development, 82, 469–475.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Bundred, P. E., Newton, D. J., & Flanagan, B. F. (2003). The second to fourth digit ratio and variation in the androgen receptor gene. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 399–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Fink, B., Neave, N., Caswell, N. (2005). Photocopies yield lower digit ratios (2D:4D) than direct finger measurements. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34, 329–333.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., Scutt, D., Wilson, J., & Lewis-Jones, D. I. (1998). The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: A predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Human Reproduction, 13, 3000–3004.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Manning, J. T., & Taylor, R. P. (2001). Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: Implications for sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22, 61–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marin-Padilla, M. (1990). Origin, formation, and prenatal maturation of the human cerebral cortex: An overview. Journal of Craniofacial Genetics and Developmental Biology, 10, 137–146.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mauger, P. A., & Adkinson, D. R. (1980). Interpersonal Behavior Survey (IBS) manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D., & Shubel, E. (2002). Relative lengths of fingers and toes in human males and females. Hormones and Behavior, 42, 492–500.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, D., & Shubel, E. (2003). The relationships between otoacoustic emissions and relative lengths of fingers and toes in humans. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 421–429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, M. H., Ellison, P. T., Lieberman, D. E., Demerath, E., & Towne, B. (2005). The development of sex differences in digital formula from infancy in the Fels Longitudinal Study. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 272, 1473–1479.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A., & Epstein, N. (1972). A measure of emotional empathy. Journal of Personality, 40, 525–543.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meikle, A. W., Stringham, J. D., Bishop, D. T., & West, D. W. (1988). Quantitating genetic and nongenetic factors influencing androgen production and clearance rates in men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 67, 104–109.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moffat, S. D., & Hampson, E. (1996). A curvilinear relationship between testosterone and spatial cognition in humans: Possible influence of hand preference. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 21, 323–337.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, T., Quinter, C., & Freeman, L. M. (2005). Lack of correlation between 2D:4D ratio and assertiveness in college age women. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 115–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neave, N., Laing, S., Fink, B., & Manning, J. T. (2003). Second to fourth digit ratio, testosterone and perceived male dominance. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 270, 2167–2172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nieschlag, E. (1974). Circadian rhythm of plasma testosterone. In J. Aschoff, F. Ceresa, & F. Halberg (Eds.), Chronobiological aspects of endocrinology (pp. 117–128). Stuttgart, Germany: Schattauer Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Connor, D. B., Archer, J., Hair, W. M., & Wu, F. C. W. (2002). Exogenous testosterone, aggression, and mood in eugonadal and hypogonadal men. Physiology & Behavior, 75, 557–566.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ökten, A., Kalyoncu, M., & Yariş, N. (2002). The ratio of second- to fourth-digit lengths and congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency. Early Human Development, 70, 47–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D., Mattsson, A., Schalling, D., & Löw, H. (1980). Testosterone, aggression, physical, and personality dimensions in normal adolescent males. Psychosomatic Medicine, 42, 253–269.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, V. R. (1952). Relative index finger length as a sex-influenced trait in man. American Journal of Human Genetics, 4, 72–89.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pope, H. G., Kouri, E. M., & Hudson, J. I. (2000). Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: A randomized controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 133–140.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Putz, D. A., Gaulin, S. J. C., Sporter, R. J., & McBurney, D. H. (2004). Sex hormones and finger length: What does 2D:4D indicate? Evolution and Human Behavior, 25, 182–199.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman, Q., Wilson, G. D., & Abrahams, S. (2004). Biosocial factors, sexual orientation and neurocognitive functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 867–881.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rathus, S. A. (1973). A 30-item schedule for assessing assertive behavior. Behavior Therapy, 4, 398–406.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reinisch, J. M. (1981). Prenatal exposure to synthetic progestins increases potential for aggression in humans. Science, 211, 1171–1173.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, S. M., Berenbaum, S. A., Gottesman, I. I., & Bouchard, T. J. (1986). Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology, 22, 191–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, S. M., Gottesman, I. I., & McGue, M. (1993). Sensation seeking in opposite-sex twins: An effect of prenatal hormones? Behavior Genetics, 23, 323–329.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, B. W., Wood, D., & Smith, J. L. (2005). Evaluating Five Factor theory and social investment perspectives on personality trait development. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 166–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Romano, M., Rubolini, D., Martinelli, R., Alquati, A. B., & Saino, N. (2005). Experimental manipulation of yolk testosterone affects digit length ratios in the ring-necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). Hormones and Behavior, 48, 342–346.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenblitt, J. C., Soler, H., Johnson, S. E., & Quadagno, D. M. (2001). Sensation seeking and hormones in men and women: Exploring the link. Hormones and Behavior, 40, 396–402.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rushton, J. P., Fulker, D. W., Neale, M. C., Nias, D. K. B., & Eysenck, H. J. (1986). Altruism and aggression: The heritability of individual differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1192–1198.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, B. C., & Vandenbergh, J. G. (2002). Intrauterine position effects. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, 665–678.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, G., Bereczkei, T., Csathó, A., & Manning, J. (2005). The ratio of the 2nd to 4th finger length predicts spatial ability in men but not women. Cortex, 41, 789–795.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, G., Sjodin, M., & de Chastelaine, M. (2002). On the elusive nature of sex differences in cognition: Hormonal influences contributing to within-sex variation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31, 145–152.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R. L., & Stapp, J. (1974). The Personal Attributes Questionnaire: A measure of sex role stereotypes and masculinity-femininity. Journal Supplement Abstract Service Document, Ms. No. 617.

  • Thurstone, L. L., & Thurstone, T. G. (1963). Primary mental abilities. Chicago, IL: Science Research Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Anders, S. M., & Hampson, E. (2005). Testing the prenatal androgen hypothesis: Measuring digit ratios, sexual orientation, and spatial abilities in adults. Hormones and Behavior, 47, 92–98.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Anders, S. M., Vernon, P. A., & Wilbur, C. J. (2006). Finger-length ratios show evidence of prenatal hormone-transfer between opposite-sex twins. Hormones and Behavior, 49, 315–319.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vandenberg, S. G., & Kuse, A. R. (1978). Mental rotations: A group test of three-dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47, 599–601.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Virkkunen, M., Kallio, E., Rawlings, R., Tokola, R., Poland, R. E., Guidotti, A., et al. (1994). Personality profiles and state aggressiveness in Finnish alcoholic, violent offenders, fire setters, and healthy volunteers. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 28–33.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Voracek, M., & Dressler, S.G. (2007). Digit ratio (2D:4D) in twins: Heritability estimates and evidence for a masculinized trait expression in women from opposite sex pairs. Psychological Reports, 100, 115–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 250–270.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M., Eysenck, S., & Eysenck, H. J. (1978). Sensation seeking in England and America: Cross-cultural, age, and sex comparisons. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 139–149.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank L. Kaufman for assistance with subject testing, R. Harshman for statistical consultation, and S. Berenbaum for useful discussion. This work was supported by a grant to E. Hampson from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). C. Tenk was the recipient of an NSERC Postgraduate Scholarship.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeth Hampson.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hampson, E., Ellis, C.L. & Tenk, C.M. On the Relation Between 2D:4D and Sex-Dimorphic Personality Traits. Arch Sex Behav 37, 133–144 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9263-3

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9263-3

Keywords

Navigation