Abstract
The role of childhood gender role nonconformity (CGNC) and childhood harassment (CH) in explaining suicidality (suicide ideation, aborted suicide attempts, and suicide attempts) was examined in a sample of 142 lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adults and 148 heterosexual adults in Austria. Current and previous suicidality, CGNC, and CH were significantly greater in LGB participants compared to heterosexual participants. After controlling for CGNC, the effect of sexual orientation on CH diminished. CGNC correlated significantly with current suicidality in the LGB but not in the heterosexual group, and only non-significant correlations were found for CGNC with previous suicidality. Controlling for CH and CGNC diminished the effect of sexual orientation on current suicidality. Bayesian multivariate analysis indicated that current suicidality, but not previous suicidality, depended directly on CGNC. CH and CGNC are likely implicated in the elevated levels of current suicidality among adult LGB participants. As for previous suicidality, the negative impact of CGNC on suicidality might be overshadowed by stress issues affecting sexual minorities around coming out. The association of CGNC with current suicidality suggests an enduring effect of CGNC on the mental health and suicide risk of LGB individuals.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aubè, J., & Koestner, R. (1992). Gender characteristics and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 485–493.
Bagley, C., & Tremblay, P. (1997). Suicidal behaviors in homosexual and bisexual males. Crisis, 18, 24–34.
Bagley, C., & Tremblay, P. (2000). Elevated rates of suicidal behavior in gay, lesbian, and bisexual youth. Crisis, 21, 111–117.
Bagley, C., Wood, M., & Young, L. (1994). Victim to abuser: Mental health and behavioral sequels of child sexual abuse in a community survey of young adult males. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18, 683–697.
Bailey, J. M., & Zucker, K. J. (1995). Childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation: A conceptual analysis and quantitative review. Developmental Psychology, 31, 43–55.
Bailey, J. M., Kim., P. Y., Hills, A., & Linsenmeier, J. A. (1997). Butch, femme, or straight acting? Partner preferences of gay men and lesbians. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 960–973.
Bailey, J. M., Dunne, M. P., & Martin, N. G. (2000). Genetic and environmental influences on sexual orientation and its correlates in an Australian twin sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 524–536.
Barber, M. E., Marzuk, P. M., Leon, A. C., & Portera, L. (1998). Aborted suicide attempts: A new classification of suicidal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 385–389.
Bergling, T. (2001). Sissyphobia. New York: Haworth Press.
Blakemore, J. E. (2003). Children’s beliefs about violating gender norms: Boys shouldn’t look like girls, and girls shouldn’t act like boys. Sex Roles, 48, 411–565.
Blum, A., & Pfetzing, V. (1997). Assaults to the self: The trauma of growing up gay. Gender and Psychoanalysis, 2, 427–442.
Boney, B. (1996). The lavender brick road: Paul Bonin–Rodriguez and the sissy bo(d)y. Theatre Journal, 48, 35–57.
Bøttcher, S. G., & Dethlefsen, C. (2003). Deal: A package for learning Bayesian networks. Journal of Statistical Software, 8, 1–40.
Carver, P. R., Yunger, J. L., & Perry, D. G. (2003). Gender identity and adjustment in middle childhood. Sex Roles, 49, 95–109.
Carver, P. R., Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2004). Children who question their heterosexuality. Developmental Psychology, 40, 43–53.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Owen, A., Kaijser, V. G., Bradley S. J., & Zucker, K. J. (2003). Demographic characteristics, social competence, and behavior problems in children with gender identity disorder: A cross-national, cross-clinic comparative analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 41–53.
Corliss, H. L., Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2002). Reports of parental maltreatment during childhood in a United States population-based survey of homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual adults. Child Abuse and Neglect, 26, 1165–1178.
D’Augelli, A. R., Hershberger, S. L., & Pilkington, N. W. (2001). Suicidality patterns and sexual orientation-related factors among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 31, 250–264.
D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., Salter, N. P., Vasey, J. J., Starks, M. T., & Sinclair, K. O. (2005). Predicting the suicide attempts of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 35, 646–660.
D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1462–1482.
de Graaf, R., Sandfort, T. G., & ten Have, M. (2006). Suicidality and sexual orientation: Differences between men and women in a general population-based sample from the Netherlands. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 253–262.
Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37, 451–463.
Fagot, B. I. (1977). Consequences of moderate cross-gender behavior in preschool children. Child Development, 48, 902–907.
Freund, K. W., Nagler, E., Langevin, R., Zajac, A., & Steiner, B. W. (1974). Measuring feminine gender identity in homosexual males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 3, 249–260.
Gottschalk, L. (2003). Same-sex sexuality and childhood gender non-conformity: A spurious connection. Journal of Gender Studies, 12, 35–50.
Green, R. (1976). One-hundred ten feminine and masculine boys: Behavioral contrasts and demographic similarities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 5, 425–446.
Grossmann, T. (2002). Prähomosexuelle Kindheiten. Eine empirische Untersuchung über Geschlechtsrollenkonformität und -nonkonformität bei homosexuellen Männern. Zeitschrift für Sexualforschung, 15, 98–119.
Harry, J. (1983a). Parasuicide, gender, and gender deviance. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 350–361.
Harry, J. (1983b). Defeminization and adult psychological well-being among male homosexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 12, 1–19.
Harry, J. (1989). Parental physical abuse and sexual orientation in males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 18, 251–261.
Herek, G. M., & Berrill, K. T. (1990). Documenting the victimization of lesbians and gay men. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 301–315.
Landolt, M. A., Bartholomew, K., Saffrey, C., Oram, D., & Perlman, D. (2004). Gender nonconformity, childhood rejection, and adult attachment: A study of gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 33, 117–128.
McCreary, D. R. (1994). The male role and avoiding femininity. Sex Roles, 31, 517–530.
McDaniel, J. S., Purcell, D., & D’Augelli, A. R. (2001). The relationship between sexual orientation and risk for suicide: Research findings and future directions for research and prevention. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 31, 84–105.
Mehlum, L. (2005). Traumatic stress and suicidal behavior: An important target for treatment and prevention. In K. Hawton (Ed.), Prevention and treatment of suicidal behavior: From science to practice (pp. 121–138). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Meneese, W. B., & Yutrzenka, B. A. (1990). Correlates of suicide ideation among rural adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 20, 206–212.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.
Namaste, K. (1996). Genderbashing: Sexuality, gender, and the regulation of public space. Society and Space, 14, 221–240.
Paykel, G., Myers, J. K., Lindethal, J. J., & Tanner, J. (1974). Suicidal feelings in the general population: A prevalence study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 124, 460–469.
Plöderl, M. (2005). Sexuelle Orientierung, Suizidalität und psychische Gesundheit. Weinheim, Germany: Beltz-PVU.
Plöderl, M., & Fartacek, R. (2005a). Suicidality and associated risk factors among lesbian, gay and bisexual compared to heterosexual Austrian adults. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior, 35, 661–670.
Plöderl, M., & Fartacek, R. (2005b, September). Nonfatal suicidality and sexual orientation: First Austrian evidence. Poster presented at the 23rd World congress of the international association for suicide prevention, Durban, South Africa.
Qin, P., Agerbo, E., & Mortensen, P. B. (2003). Suicide risk in relation to socioeconomic, demographic, psychiatric, and familial factors: A national register-based study of all suicides in Denmark, 1981–1997. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 765–772.
R Development Core Team. (2004). R: A language and environment for statistical computing (Version 2.0.0) [Computer software and manual]. Retrieved 1 April 2004, from http://www.r-project.org.
Reinherz, H. Z., Giaconia, R. M., Silverman, A. B., Friedman, A., Pakiz, B., Frost, A. K., et al. (1995). Early psychosocial risk for adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 599–611.
Reis, B., & Saewyc, E. (1999). Eighty-three-thousand youth: Selected findings of eight population based studies as they pertain to anti-gay harassment and the safety and well-being of sexual minority students. The Safe Schools Coalition of Washington. Retrieved 3 January 2007 from http://www.safeschoolscoalition.org/83000youth.pdf.
Rosenthal, R., Rosnow, R. L., & Rubin, D. B. (2000). Contrasts and effect sizes in behavioral research: A correlational approach. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Ross, M. W. (1980). Retrospective distortion in homosexual research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 9, 523–531.
Skidmore, W. C., Linsenmeier, J. A., & Bailey, J. M. (2006). Gender nonconformity and psychological distress in lesbians and gay men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 35, 685–697.
Taywaditep, K. J. (2001). Marginalization among the marginalized: Gay men’s anti-effeminacy attitudes. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 1–28.
Washburn-Ormachea, J. M., Hillman, S. B., & Sawilowsky, S. (2004). Gender and gender-role orientation differences on adolescents’ coping with peer stressors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 31–40.
Weinrich J. D., Hampton A., McCutchan J. A., Grant I., & the HNRC Group. (1995). Is gender dysphoria dysphoric? Elevated depression and anxiety in gender dysphoric and nondysphoric homosexual and bisexual men in an HIV sample. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 24, 55–71.
Yunger, J. L., Carver, P. R., & Perry, D. G. (2004). Does gender identity influence children’s psychological well-being? Developmental Psychology, 40, 572–582.
Zucker, K. J. (2005). Commentary on Gottschalk’s (2003) “Same sex sexuality and childhood gender non-conformity: A spurious connection.” Journal of Gender Studies, 14, 55–60.
Zucker, K. J., Bradley, S. J., & Sanikhani, M. (1997). Sex differences in referral rates of children with gender identity disorder: Some hypotheses. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 217–227.
Zucker, K. J., Mitchell, J. N., Bradley, S. J., Tkachuk, J., Cantor, J. M., & Allin, S. M. (2006). The Recalled Childhood Gender Identity/Gender Role questionnaire: Psychometric properties. Sex Roles, 54, 469–483.
Acknowledgments
We thank Pierre Tremblay for his valuable contributions to an earlier version of the article, for his critical discussions, and for smoothing out the English. We also thank Jen Wang and Cayce McCain for their assistance in the revision process as well as the gay and lesbian organizations throughout Austria for distributing the questionnaires.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Plöderl, M., Fartacek, R. Childhood Gender Nonconformity and Harassment as Predictors of Suicidality among Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Heterosexual Austrians. Arch Sex Behav 38, 400–410 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9244-6
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9244-6