Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Self-Regulation of Breathing as a Primary Treatment for Anxiety

  • Published:
Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Understanding the autonomic nervous system and homeostatic changes associated with emotions remains a major challenge for neuroscientists and a fundamental prerequisite to treat anxiety, stress, and emotional disorders. Based on recent publications, the inter-relationship between respiration and emotions and the influence of respiration on autonomic changes, and subsequent widespread membrane potential changes resulting from changes in homeostasis are discussed. We hypothesize that reversing homeostatic alterations with meditation and breathing techniques rather than targeting neurotransmitters with medication may be a superior method to address the whole body changes that occur in stress, anxiety, and depression. Detrimental effects of stress, negative emotions, and sympathetic dominance of the autonomic nervous system have been shown to be counteracted by different forms of meditation, relaxation, and breathing techniques. We propose that these breathing techniques could be used as first-line and supplemental treatments for stress, anxiety, depression, and some emotional disorders.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdou, A. M., Higashiguchi, S., Horie, K., Kim, M., Hatta, H., & Yokogoshi, H. (2006). Relaxation and immunity enhancement effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) administration in humans. BioFactors, 26(3), 201–208.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agte, V. V., & Chiplonkar, S. A. (2008). Sudarshan Kriya yoga for improving antioxidant status and reducing anxiety in adults. Alternative and Complementary Therapies, 14(2), 96–100. doi:10.1089/act.2008.14204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alberts, B., Amodio, J., Lewis J., Raff, M., K., Roberts, K., Walter, P. (2002). The mitochondrion. Molecular biology of the cell (4th edn). New York: Garland Science.

  • Bernardi, L., Spadacini, G., Bellwon, J., Hajric, R., Roskamm, H., & Frey, A. W. (1998). Effect of breathing rate on oxygen saturation and exercise performance in chronic heart failure. Lancet, 351(9112), 1308–1311. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)10341-5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bhimani, N. T., Kulkarni, N. B., Kowale, A., & Salvi, S. (2011). Effect of Pranayama on stress and cardiovascular autonomic function. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 55(4), 370–377.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bilo, G., Revera, M., Bussotti, M., Bonacina, D., Styczkiewicz, K., Caldara, G., et al. (2012). Effects of slow deep breathing at high altitude on oxygen saturation, pulmonary and systemic hemodynamics. PLoS One, 7(11), e49074. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049074.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. P., & Gerbarg, P. L. (2005a). Sudarshan kriya yogic breathing in the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression. Part II—Clinical applications and guidelines. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(4), 711–717. doi:10.1089/acm.2005.11.711.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R. P., & Gerbarg, P. L. (2005b). Sudarshan Kriya yogic breathing in the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression: Part I—Neurophysiologic model. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(1), 189–201. doi:10.1089/acm.2005.11.189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buffett-Jerrott, S. E., & Stewart, S. H. (2002). Cognitive and sedative effects of benzodiazepine use. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 8(1), 45–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bujatti, M., & Riederer, P. (1976). Serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine metabolites in transcendental meditation-technique. Journal of Neural Transmission, 39(3), 257–267.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cacioppo, J. T., Bernston, G. G., Larsen, J. T., Poehlmann, K. M., & Ito, T. (2000). The psychophysiology of emotion (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, H. A., & Egginton, S. (2007). The vagus nerve mediates cardio-respiratory coupling that changes with metabolic demand in a temperate nototheniod fish. Journal of Experimental Biology, 210(Pt 14), 2472–2480. doi:10.1242/jeb.003822.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colleoni, F., Padmanabhan, N., Yung, H. W., Watson, E. D., Cetin, I., Tissot van Patot, M. C., et al. (2013). Suppression of mitochondrial electron transport chain function in the hypoxic human placenta: A role for miRNA-210 and protein synthesis inhibition. PLoS One, 8(1), e55194. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055194.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cowings, P. S., Suter, S., Toscano, W. B., Kamiya, J., & Naifeh, K. (1986). General autonomic components of motion sickness. Psychophysiology, 23(5), 542–551.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cysarz, D., & Bussing, A. (2005). Cardiorespiratory synchronization during Zen meditation. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 95(1), 88–95. doi:10.1007/s00421-005-1379-3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Czyzyk-Krzeska, M. F., & Trzebski, A. (1990). Respiratory-related discharge pattern of sympathetic nerve activity in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Journal of Physiology, 426, 355–368.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, M. (1992). The role of the amygdala in fear and anxiety. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 15, 353–375. doi:10.1146/annurev.ne.15.030192.002033.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Delmonte, M. M. (1984). Physiological responses during meditation and rest. Biofeedback and Self Regulation, 9(2), 181–200.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, J. A., Sheel, A. W., St Croix, C. M., & Morgan, B. J. (2002). Respiratory influences on sympathetic vasomotor outflow in humans. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 130(1), 3–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Desbordes, G., Negi, L. T., Pace, T. W. W., Wallace, B. A., Raison, C. L., & Schwartz, E. L. (2012). Effects of mindful-attention and compassion meditation training on amygdala response to emotional stimuli in an ordinary, non-meditative state. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00292.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Descilo, T., Vedamurtachar, A., Gerbarg, P. L., Nagaraja, D., Gangadhar, B. N., Damodaran, B., et al. (2010). Effects of a yoga breath intervention alone and in combination with an exposure therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in survivors of the 2004 South-East Asia tsunami. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 121(4), 289–300. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01466.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, T. E., Baekey, D. M., Paton, J. F., Lindsey, B. G., & Morris, K. F. (2009). Cardio-respiratory coupling depends on the pons. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 168(1–2), 76–85. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2009.07.009.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiMicco, J. A., Gale, K., Hamilton, B., & Gillis, R. A. (1979). GABA receptor control of parasympathetic outflow to heart: Characterization and brainstem localization. Science, 204(4397), 1106–1109.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G., Jr., & Lating, J. (2013). Voluntary control of respiration patterns. A clinical guide to the treatment of the human stress response (pp. 223–235). Springer: New York.

  • Fieni, F., Parkar, A., Misgeld, T., Kerschensteiner, M., Lichtman, J. W., Pasinelli, P., & Trotti, D. (2010). Voltage-dependent inwardly rectifying potassium conductance in the outer membrane of neuronal mitochondria. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 285(35), 27411–27417. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.131243.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, J. G., & Mendelowitz, D. (2012). Synaptic and intrinsic activation of GABAergic neurons in the cardiorespiratory brainstem network. PLoS One, 7(5), e36459. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036459.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerbarg, P. L., & Brown, R. P. (2005). Yoga: A breath of relief for Hurricane Katrina refugees. Current Psychiatry, 4, 55–67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gnaiger, E., & Kuznetsov, A. V. (2002). Mitochondrial respiration at low levels of oxygen and cytochrome c. Biochemical Society Transactions, 30(2), 252–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goddard, A. W., Mason, G. F., Almai, A., Rothman, D. L., Behar, K. L., Petroff, O. A., et al. (2001). Reductions in occipital cortex GABA levels in panic disorder detected with 1 h-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(6), 556–561.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 10(1), 83–91. doi:10.1037/a0018441.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gomez, P., Stahel, W. A., & Danuser, B. (2004). Respiratory responses during affective picture viewing. Biological Psychology, 67(3), 359–373. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.03.013.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guglietti, C. L., Daskalakis, Z. J., Radhu, N., Fitzgerald, P. B., & Ritvo, P. (2013). Meditation-related increases in GABAB modulated cortical inhibition. Brain Stimulation, 6(3), 397–402. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2012.08.005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, P. K., Kumar, M., Kumari, R., & Deo, J. (2010). Anuloma-viloma pranayama and anxiety and depression among the aged. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 36(1), 159–164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. P., & Cullinan, W. E. (1997). Neurocircuitry of stress: Central control of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical axis. Trends in Neurosciences, 20(2), 78–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, J. W., Benson, H., Arns, P. A., Stainbrook, G. L., Landsberg, G. L., Young, J. B., & Gill, A. (1982). Reduced sympathetic nervous system responsivity associated with the relaxation response. Science, 215(4529), 190–192.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iglesias, S. L., Azzara, S., Argibay, J. C., Arnaiz, M. L., de Valle Carpineta, M., Granchetti, H., & Lagomarsino, E. (2012). Psychological and physiological response of students to different types of stress management programs. American Journal of Health Promotion, 26(6), e149–e158. doi:10.4278/ajhp.110516-QUAL-199.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Infante, J. R., Torres-Avisbal, M., Pinel, P., Vallejo, J. A., Peran, F., Gonzalez, F., et al. (2001). Catecholamine levels in practitioners of the transcendental meditation technique. Physiology and Behavior, 72(1–2), 141–146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Innes, K. E., & Selfe, T. K. (2014). Meditation as a therapeutic intervention for adults at risk for Alzheimer's disease - potential benefits and underlying mechanisms. Frontiers in Psychiatry. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00040.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isoardi, N. A., Bertotto, M. E., Martijena, I. D., Molina, V. A., & Carrer, H. F. (2007). Lack of feedback inhibition on rat basolateral amygdala following stress or withdrawal from sedative-hypnotic drugs. European Journal of Neuroscience, 26(4), 1036–1044. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05714.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isu, N., Koo, J., & Takahashi, N. (1987). Changes of skin potential level and of skin resistance level corresponding to lasting motion discomfort. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, 58(2), 136–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, G. D. (2001). Clinical applications of the relaxation response and mind-body interventions. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 7(Suppl 1), S93–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janakiramaiah, N., Gangadhar, B. N., Naga Venkatesha Murthy, P. J., Harish, M. G., Subbakrishna, D. K., & Vedamurthachar, A. (2000). Antidepressant efficacy of sudarshan kriya yoga (SKY) in melancholia: a randomized comparison with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and imipramine. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57(1–3), 255–259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jerath, R., & Barnes, V. A. (2009). Augmentation of mind-body therapy and role of deep slow breathing. Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine. doi:10.2202/1553-3840.1299.

  • Jerath, R., Barnes, V. A., & Crawford, M. W. (2014). Mind-body response and neurophysiological changes during stress and meditation: central role of homeostasis. Journal of Biological Regulators and Homeostatic Agents, 28(4), 545–554.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jerath, R., Barnes, V. A., Dillard-Wright, D., Jerath, S., & Hamilton, B. (2012). Dynamic change of awareness during meditation techniques: Neural and physiological correlates. Frontiers Human Neuroscience, 6, 131. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jerath, R., Crawford, M. W., Barnes, V. A., & Harden, K. (2015). Widespread depolarization during expiration: A source of respiratory drive? Medical Hypotheses, 84(1), 31–37. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2014.11.010.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jerath, R., Edry, J. W., Barnes, V. A., & Jerath, V. (2006). Physiology of long pranayamic breathing: Neural respiratory elements may provide a mechanism that explains how slow deep breathing shifts the autonomic nervous system. Medical Hypotheses, 67(3), 566–571. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2006.02.042.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jerath, R., Harden, K., Crawford, M., Barnes, V. A., & Jensen, M. (2014). Role of cardiorespiratory synchronization and sleep physiology: Effects on membrane potential in the restorative functions of sleep. Sleep Medicine,. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2013.10.017.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K. H., Bang, S. W., & Kim, S. R. (2004). Emotion recognition system using short-term monitoring of physiological signals. Medical Biological Engineering Computing, 42(3), 419–427.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, S. H., Schneider, S. M., Bevans, M., Kravitz, L., Mermier, C., Qualls, C., & Burge, M. R. (2013). PTSD symptom reduction with mindfulness-based stretching and deep breathing exercise: Randomized controlled clinical trial of efficacy. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 98(7), 2984–2992. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-3742.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kjaer, T. W., Bertelsen, C., Piccini, P., Brooks, D., Alving, J., & Lou, H. C. (2002). Increased dopamine tone during meditation-induced change of consciousness. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research, 13(2), 255–259.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kmita, H., & Stobienia, O. (2006). The VDAC channel as the mitochondria function regulator. Postepy Biochemii, 52(2), 129–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kondo, T., Kobayashi, I., Hirokawa, Y., Ohta, Y., Yamabayashi, H., & Arita, H. (1993). Centrally driven slow oscillating potential of extrathoracic trachea. Journal of Applied Physiology (1985), 74(3), 1066–1072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kop, W. J., Synowski, S. J., Newell, M. E., Schmidt, L. A., Waldstein, S. R., & Fox, N. A. (2011). Autonomic nervous system reactivity to positive and negative mood induction: The role of acute psychological responses and frontal electrocortical activity. Biological Psychology, 86(3), 230–238. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.12.003.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kreibig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84(3), 394–421. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.010.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kulkarni, S., O’Farrell, I., Erasi, M., & Kochar, M. S. (1998). Stress and hypertension. WMJ: Official Publication of the State, 97(11), 34–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lader, M. (1994). Anxiolytic drugs: Dependence, addiction and abuse. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 4(2), 85–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Laurino, R. A., Barnabe, V., Saraiva-Romanholo, B. M., Stelmach, R., Cukier, A., & Nunes Mdo, P. (2012). Respiratory rehabilitation: A physiotherapy approach to the control of asthma symptoms and anxiety. Clinics (Sao Paulo), 67(11), 1291–1297.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leung, R. S., Floras, J. S., & Bradley, T. D. (2006). Respiratory modulation of the autonomic nervous system during Cheyne-Stokes respiration. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 84(1), 61–66. doi:10.1139/y05-145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, Q.-H., Zheng, Y.-M., Korde, A. S., Yadav, V. R., Rathore, R., Wess, J., & Wang, Y.-X. (2009). Membrane depolarization causes a direct activation of G protein-coupled receptors leading to local Ca2+ release in smooth muscle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(27), 11418–11423. doi:10.1073/pnas.0813307106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lo, P. C., & Chang, C. H. (2013). Effects of long-term dharma-chan meditation on cardiorespiratory synchronization and HRV behavior. Rejuvenation Research, 16(2), 115–123.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malliani, A. (1999). The pattern of sympathovagal balance explored in the frequency domain. Physiology, 14(3), 111–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manzoni, G., Pagnini, F., Castelnuovo, G., & Molinari, E. (2008). Relaxation training for anxiety: A ten-years systematic review with meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry, 8(1), 41.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, R. S., Basilakos, A., Williams, T., & Love-Myers, K. (2013). Exploring the benefits of unilateral nostril breathing practice post-stroke: Attention, language, spatial abilities, depression, and anxiety. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine,. doi:10.1089/acm.2013.0019.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masaoka, Y., & Homma, I. (2000). The source generator of respiratory-related anxiety potential in the human brain. Neuroscience Letters, 283(1), 21–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masaoka, Y., & Homma, I. (2001). The effect of anticipatory anxiety on breathing and metabolism in humans. Respiration Physiology, 128(2), 171–177. doi:10.1016/S0034-5687(01)00278-X.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCorry, L. K. (2007). Physiology of the autonomic nervous system. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71(4), 78.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, J. S., & Quenzer, L. F. (2005). Psychopharmacology: Drugs, the brain, and behavior. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murik, S. E. (2005). Polarization theory of motivations, emotions and attention. Bulletin of Eastern-Siberian Scientific Center SB RAMS, 7, 167–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Musazzi, L., Milanese, M., Farisello, P., Zappettini, S., Tardito, D., Barbiero, V. S., et al. (2010). Acute stress increases depolarization-evoked glutamate release in the rat prefrontal/frontal cortex: The dampening action of antidepressants. PLoS One, 5(1), e8566. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008566.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naveen, G. H., Rao, M. G., Vishal, V., Thirthalli, J., Varambally, S., & Gangadhar, B. N. (2013). Development and feasibility of yoga therapy module for out-patients with depression in India. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 55(Suppl 3), S350–S356. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.116305.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nemati, A. (2013). The effect of pranayama on test anxiety and test performance. International Journal of Yoga, 6(1), 55–60. doi:10.4103/0973-6131.105947.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nesse, R. M., & Berridge, K. C. (1997). Psychoactive drug use in evolutionary perspective. Science, 278(5335), 63–66. doi:10.1126/science.278.5335.63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newberg, A., Travis, F., Wintering, N., Nidich, S., Alavi, A., & Schneider, R. (2006). Cerebral 416 glucose metabolic changes associated with Transcendental Meditation practice. Paper presented at the neural imaging, Miami, Fl.

  • Ospina, M. B., Bond, K., Karkhaneh, M., Tjosvold, L., Vandermeer, B., Liang, Y., et al. (2007). Meditation practices for health: state of the research. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Full Rep)(155), 1–263.

  • Padival, M., Quinette, D., & Rosenkranz, J. A. (2013). Effects of repeated stress on excitatory drive of basal amygdala neurons in vivo. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38(9), 1748–1762. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.74.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pal, G. K., Velkumary, S., & Madanmohan, (2004). Effect of short-term practice of breathing exercises on autonomic functions in normal human volunteers. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 120(2), 115–121.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patin, A., & Hurlemann, R. (2011). Modulating amygdala responses to emotion: Evidence from pharmacological fMRI. Neuropsychologia, 49(4), 706–717. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.004.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peupelmann, J., Boettger, M. K., Ruhland, C., Berger, S., Ramachandraiah, C. T., Yeragani, V. K., & Bär, K.-J. (2009). Cardio-respiratory coupling indicates suppression of vagal activity in acute schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 112(1–3), 153–157. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2009.03.042.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Porta, A., Guzzetti, S., Montano, N., Pagani, M., Somers, V., Malliani, A., et al. (2000). Information domain analysis of cardiovascular variability signals: Evaluation of regularity, synchronisation and co-ordination. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing, 38(2), 180–188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ranabir, S., & Reetu, K. (2011). Stress and hormones. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 15(1), 18–22. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.77573.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reznikov, L. R., Grillo, C. A., Piroli, G. G., Pasumarthi, R. K., Reagan, L. P., & Fadel, J. (2007). Acute stress-mediated increases in extracellular glutamate levels in the rat amygdala: Differential effects of antidepressant treatment. European Journal of Neuroscience, 25(10), 3109–3114. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05560.x.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sato, T., Nishishita, K., Kato, Y., Okada, Y., & Toda, K. (2006). Tonic activity of parasympathetic efferent nerve fibers hyperpolarizes the resting membrane potential of frog taste cells. Chemical Senses, 31(4), 307–313. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjj034.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer, C., Rosenblum, M. G., Kurths, J., & Abel, H. H. (1998). Heartbeat synchronized with ventilation. Nature, 392(6673), 239–240. doi:10.1038/32567.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seals, D. R., Suwarno, N. O., & Dempsey, J. A. (1990). Influence of lung volume on sympathetic nerve discharge in normal humans. Circulation Research, 67(1), 130–141. doi:10.1161/01.res.67.1.130.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sequeira, H., Hot, P., Silvert, L., & Delplanque, S. (2009). Electrical autonomic correlates of emotion. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71(1), 50–56. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.07.009.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Song, H. S., & Lehrer, P. M. (2003). The effects of specific respiratory rates on heart rate and heart rate variability. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 28(1), 13–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • St Croix, C. M., Satoh, M., Morgan, B. J., Skatrud, J. B., & Dempsey, J. A. (1999). Role of respiratory motor output in within-breath modulation of muscle sympathetic nerve activity in humans. Circulation Research, 85(5), 457–469.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Starcevic, V. (2012). Benzodiazepines for anxiety disorders: Maximising the benefits and minimising the risks. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 18(4), 250–258. doi:10.1192/apt.bp.110.008631.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storm, H., Myre, K., Rostrup, M., Stokland, O., Lien, M. D., & Raeder, J. C. (2002). Skin conductance correlates with perioperative stress. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica, 46(7), 887–895.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Streeter, C. C., Gerbarg, P. L., Saper, R. B., Ciraulo, D. A., & Brown, R. P. (2012). Effects of yoga on the autonomic nervous system, gamma-aminobutyric-acid, and allostasis in epilepsy, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Medical Hypotheses, 78(5), 571–579. doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2012.01.021.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Streeter, C. C., Jensen, J. E., Perlmutter, R. M., Cabral, H. J., Tian, H., Terhune, D. B., et al. (2007). Yoga Asana sessions increase brain GABA levels: A pilot study. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 13(4), 419–426. doi:10.1089/acm.2007.6338.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stubenrauch, J. M. (2011). Meditation as good as medication? AJN The American Journal of Nursing, 111(3), 16. doi:10.1097/1010.1097/1001.NAJ.0000395224.0000379799.0000395232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sztajzel, J. (2004). Heart rate variability: A noninvasive electrocardiographic method to measure the autonomic nervous system. Swiss Medical Weekly, 134(35–36), 514–522.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, V. A., Grant, J., Daneault, V., Scavone, G., Breton, E., Roffe-Vidal, S., et al. (2011). Impact of mindfulness on the neural responses to emotional pictures in experienced and beginner meditators. Neuroimage, 57(4), 1524–1533. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.001.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Telles, S., Nagarathna, R., & Nagendra, H. R. (1995). Autonomic changes during “OM” meditation. Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 39(4), 418–420.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Topchiy, I., Radulovacki, M., Waxman, J., & Carley, D. W. (2011). Impact of the vagal feedback on cardiorespiratory coupling in anesthetized rats. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 175(3), 375–382. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2010.12.017.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandana, B., Vaidyanathan, K., Saraswathy, L. A., Sundaram, K. R., & Kumar, H. (2011). Impact of integrated amrita meditation technique on adrenaline and cortisol levels in healthy volunteers. Evidence Based Complement Alternative Medicine, 2011, 379645. doi:10.1155/2011/379645.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vrijkotte, T. G. M., van Doornen, L. J. P., & de Geus, E. J. C. (2000). Effects of work stress on ambulatory blood pressure, heart rate, and heart rate variability. Hypertension, 35(4), 880–886. doi:10.1161/01.hyp.35.4.880.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wahlestedt, C., Pich, E., Koob, G., Yee, F., & Heilig, M. (1993). Modulation of anxiety and neuropeptide Y-Y1 receptors by antisense oligodeoxynucleotides. Science, 259(5094), 528–531. doi:10.1126/science.8380941.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, R. K. (1970). Physiological effects of transcendental meditation. Science, 167(3926), 1751–1754.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, R. K., Benson, H., & Wilson, A. F. (1971). A wakeful hypometabolic physiologic state. American Journal of Physiology, 221(3), 795–799.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wijsman, J., Grundlehner, B., Penders, J., & Hermens, H. (2010). Trapezius muscle EMG as predictor of mental stress. Paper presented at the Wireless Health 2010, San Diego, California.

  • Wood, C. (1993). Mood change and perceptions of vitality: A comparison of the effects of relaxation, visualization and yoga. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 86(5), 254–258.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, L. J., Gao, Z., Chen, B., Koval, O. M., Singh, M. V., Guan, X., et al. (2009). Calmodulin kinase II is required for fight or flight sinoatrial node physiology. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences United States of America, 106(14), 5972–5977. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806422106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wu, L. J., Ko, S. W., Toyoda, H., Zhao, M. G., Xu, H., Vadakkan, K. I., et al. (2007). Increased anxiety-like behavior and enhanced synaptic efficacy in the amygdala of GluR5 knockout mice. PLoS One, 2(1), e167. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000167.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, S. D., & Lo, P. C. (2010). Cardiorespiratory phase synchronization during normal rest and inward-attention meditation. International Journal of Cardiology, 141(3), 325–328. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.11.137.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Youngstedt, S. D., & Kripke, D. F. (2007). Does bright light have an anxiolytic effect?—An open trial. BMC Psychiatry, 7, 62. doi:10.1186/1471-244x-7-62.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zagon, A., & Kemeny, A. A. (2000). Slow hyperpolarization in cortical neurons: A possible mechanism behind vagus nerve simulation therapy for refractory epilepsy? Epilepsia, 41(11), 1382–1389.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J., Yu, X., & Xie, D. (2010). Effects of mental tasks on the cardiorespiratory synchronization. Respiratory Physiology and Neurobiology, 170(1), 91–95. doi:10.1016/j.resp.2009.11.003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zope, S. A., & Zope, R. A. (2013). Sudarshan kriya yoga: Breathing for health. International Journal of Yoga, 6(1), 4–10. doi:10.4103/0973-6131.105935.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflict of interest

No funding was received for this article. There is no conflict of interest to report.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Augusta Women’s Center, 2100 Central Ave., Suite #7, Augusta, GA, 30904, USA

    Ravinder Jerath, Molly W. Crawford & Kyler Harden

  2. Georgia Prevention Institute, Georgia Regents University, Augusta, GA, USA

    Vernon A. Barnes

Authors
  1. Ravinder Jerath
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Molly W. Crawford
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Vernon A. Barnes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Kyler Harden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ravinder Jerath.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Jerath, R., Crawford, M.W., Barnes, V.A. et al. Self-Regulation of Breathing as a Primary Treatment for Anxiety. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 40, 107–115 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-015-9279-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-015-9279-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation