Abstract
The task of determining an optimal route to several locations is called the traveling salesperson problem (TSP). The TSP has been used recently to examine spatial cognition in humans and non-human animals. It remains unclear whether or not the decision process of animals other than non-human primates utilizes rigid rule-based heuristics, or whether non-human animals are able to flexibly ‘plan’ future routes/behavior based on their knowledge of multiple locations. We presented pigeons in a One-way and Round-Trip group with TSPs that included two or three destinations (feeders) in a laboratory environment. The pigeons departed a start location, traveled to each feeder once before returning to a final destination. Pigeons weighed the proximity of the next location heavily, but appeared to plan ahead multiple steps when the travel costs for inefficient behavior appeared to increase. The results provide clear and strong evidence that animals other than primates are capable of planning sophisticated travel routes.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bennett ATD (1996) No evidence for cognitive mapping in rats. Anim Behav 52:201–212
Brown MF, Drew MR (1998) Exposure to spatial cues facilitates visual discrimination but not spatial guidance. Learn Motiv 29:367–382
Brown MF, Rish PA, VonCulin JE, Edberg JA (1993) Spatial guidance of choice behavior in the radial-arm maze. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 19:195–214
Cook RG, Brown MF, Riley DA (1985) Flexible memory processing by rats: use of prospective and retrospective information in the radial maze. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 11(3):453–469
Cramer AE, Gallistel CR (1997) Vervet monkey as traveling salesman. Nature 387(6632):464–464
Gallistel CR (1990) The organization of learning. MIT Press, Cambridge
Gallistel CR, Cramer AE (1996) Computations on metric maps in mammals: getting oriented and choosing a multi-destination route. J Exp Biol 199:211–217
Gibson BM, Kamil AC (2001) Tests for cognitive mapping in Clark’s nutcrackers (Nucifraga columbiana). J Comp Psychol 115:403–417
Gibson BM, Wasserman EA, Kamil AC (2007) Pigeons and people select efficient routes when solving a one-way “traveling salesperson” task. J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 33(3):244–261
Janson CH (1998) Experimental evidence for spatial memory in foraging wild capuchin monkeys, Cebus paella. Anim Behav 55:1229–1243
Janson CH (2007) Experimental evidence for route integration and strategic planning in wild capuchin monkeys. Anim Cognit 10:341–356
Kong X, Schunn CD (2007) Global vs. local information processing in visual/spatial problem solving: the case of traveling salesperson problem. Cognit Syst Res 8(3):192–207
MacDonald SE (1994) Gorillas’ (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) spatial memory in a foraging task. J Comp Psychol 108:107–113
MacDonald SE, Wilkie D (1990) Yellow-nosed monkeys’ (Cercopithecus ascanius whitesidei) spatial memory in a simulated foraging environment. J Comp Psychol 104:382–397
MacGregor JN, Ormerod TC (1996) Human performance on the traveling salesman problem. Percept Psychophys 58:527–539
MacGregor JN, Ormerod TC, Chronicle EP (1999) Spatial and contextual factors in human performance on the traveling salesperson problem. Perception 28:1417–1427
Miyata H, Fujita K (2006) Performance of pigeons (Columba livia) on maze problems presented on the LCD screen: in search of preplanning ability in an avian species. J Comp Psychol 120:358–366
Miyata H, Fujita K (2008) Pigeons (Columba livia) plan future moves on computerized maze tasks. Anim Cognit 11:505–516
Miyata H, Fujita K (2010) Route selection by pigeons (Columba livia) in “traveling salesperson” navigation tasks presented on an LCD screen. J Comp Psychol 124(4):433–446
O’Keefe J, Nadel L (1978) The hippocampus as a cognitive map. Clarendon Press, Oxford
Richardson AE, Montello DR, Hegarty M (1999) Spatial knowledge acquisition from maps and from navigation in real and virtual environments. Mem Cognit 27:741–750
Scarf D, Colombo M (2010) The formation and execution of sequential plans in pigeons (Columba livia). Behav Process 83:179–182
Shettleworth SJ (2010) Cognition, evolution, and behavior, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York
Stevens JR, Stephens DW (2008) Patience. Curr Biol 18:R11–R12
Vickers D, Lee MD, Dry M (2006) The aesthetic appeal of minimal structures: judging the attractiveness of solutions to traveling salesperson problems. Percept Psychophys 68:32–42
Williams M (2003) Don’t let the pigeon drive the bus! Hyperion Books For Children, New York
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gibson, B., Wilkinson, M. & Kelly, D. Let the pigeon drive the bus: pigeons can plan future routes in a room. Anim Cogn 15, 379–391 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-011-0463-9
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-011-0463-9