Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Measuring perfectionism in children: a systematic review of the mental health literature

  • Review
  • Published:
European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The adverse consequences of perfectionism in the lives of youth (children and adolescents) are now widely recognised, including impact on mental health and general well-being. In order to develop interventions to prevent and treat perfectionism and promote resilience for children, rigorous testing and examination of theoretical models is needed as well as having access to valid and reliable assessment tools. The aim of the current literature review was to examine the validity and reliability of the measures currently being used to measure perfectionism in children under the age of 15. A systematic review of the literature identified six instruments that had been utilised in children. Preliminary support with respect to reliability and validity was established for each of these measures, and there was evidence supporting the existence of both perfectionistic striving and perfectionistic concerns in this population. However, many of the measures lacked evaluation of key psychometric properties by independent authors. Further work distinguishing adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism will be necessary to promote future interventions and treatment in this area.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Stoeber J, Childs JH (2012) Perfectionism. In: Levesque RJR (ed) Encyclopaedia of adolescence. Springer, New York

    Google Scholar 

  2. Limberg K, Watson H, Hagger M, Egan S (2016) The relationship between perfectionism and psychopathology: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22435 (Epub ahead of print)

    Google Scholar 

  3. Flett G, Hewitt P (2014) A proposed framework for preventing perfectionism and promoting resilience and mental health among vulnerable children and adolescents. Psychol Schools 51:899–912

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Moate R, Gnilka P, West E, Rice K (in press) Doctoral student perfectionism and emotional wellbeing. Meas Eval Couns Dev

  5. Afshara H, Roohafza H, Sadeghi M et al (2010) Positive and negative perfectionism and their relationships with anxiety and depression in Iranian school students. J Res Med Sci 16:79–86

    Google Scholar 

  6. Fairburn G, Shafran R, Cooper Z (1999) A cognitive behavioural theory of anorexia nervosa. Behav Res Ther 37:1–13

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Frost R, Novara C, Rheaume J (2002) Perfectionism in obsessive-compulsive disorder. In: Frost R, Stekettee G (eds) Cognitive approaches to obsessions and compulsions. Pergamon Press, New York, pp 91–105

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  8. Egan S, Wade T, Shafran R (2011) Perfectionism as a transdiagnostic process. Clin Psychol Rev 31:203–212

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Hawkins C, Watt H, Sinclair K (2006) Psychometric properties of the Frost multidimensional perfectionism scale with Australian adolescent girls. Educ Psychol Meas 66:1001–1022

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Sironic A, Reeve R (2015) A combined analysis of the Frost multidimensional perfectionism scale (FMPS), child and adolescent perfectionism scale (CAPS), and almost perfect scale-revised (APS-R): different perfectionist profiles in adolescent high school students. Psychol Assess 27:1471–1483

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Bento C, Pereira A, Maia B et al (2010) Perfectionism and eating behaviour in Portuguese adolescents. Euro Eat Disord Rev 18:328–337

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Boone L, Soenens B, Braet C, Goossens L (2010) An empirical typology of perfectionism in early-to-mid adolescents and its relation with eating disorder symptoms. Behav Res Ther 48:686–691

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Huggins L, Davis M, Rooney R, Kane R (2008) Socially prescribed and self-oriented perfectionism as predictors of depressive diagnosis in preadolescents. Aust J Guid Couns 18:182–194

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Dry S, Kane R, Rooney R (2015) An investigation into the role of coping in preventing depression associated with perfectionism in preadolescent children. Front Public Health 3:1–12

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Boergers J, Spirito A, Donaldson D (1998) Reasons for adolescent suicide attempts: associations with psychological functioning. J Am Acad of Child Adolesc Psychiatry 37:1287–1293

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. O’Connor R, Rasmussen S, Miles J, Hawton K (2009) Self-harm in adolescents: self-report survey in schools in Scotland. Br J Psychiatry 194:68–72

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Mitchell J, Newall C, Broeran S, Hudson J (2013) The role of perfectionism in cognitive behaviour therapy outcomes for clinically anxious children. Behav Res Ther 51:547–554

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Campbell M, Fitzpatrick R, Haines A, Kinmonth AL, Sandercock P, Spiegelhalter D, Tyer P (2000) Framework for design and evaluation of complex interventions to improve health. BMJ 321:694–696

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Rice K, Preusser K (2002) The adaptive/maladaptive perfectionism scale. Meas Eval Couns Dev 34:210–222

    Google Scholar 

  20. Shafran R, Cooper Z, Fairbun CG (2002) Clinical perfectionism: a cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behav Res Ther 40:773–791

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Morris L, Lomax C (2014) Review: assessment, development, and treatment of childhood perfectionism: a systematic review. Child Adolesc Men Health 19:225–234

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Flett G, Coulter L, Hewitt P (2012) The perfectionistic self-presentation scale-junior form: psychometric properties and association with social anxiety in early adolescents. Can J Sch Psychol 27:136–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Rice K, Leever B, Noggle C, Lapsley D (2007) Perfectionism and depressive symptoms in early adolescents. Psychol Schools 44:139–156

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Rice K, Ashby J, Gilman R (2011) Classifying adolescent perfectionists. Psychol Assess 23:563–577

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Flett G, Hewitt P, Besser A, Su C, Vaillancort T, Boucher D, Munro Y, Davidson L, Gate O (2016) The child-adolescent perfectionism scale: development, psychometric properties, and associations with stress, distress and psychiatric symptoms. J Psychoeduc Assess 34:634–652

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Marshall G, Gardiner M, Grealy T (2004) The incidence of perfectionism and self-handicapping in gifted female students: an investigative study. Aus J Gifted Educ 13:17–23

    Google Scholar 

  27. O’Connor R, Dixon D, Rasmussen S (2009) The structure and temporal stability of the child and adolescent perfectionism scale. Psychol Assess 21:437–443

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman D, The PRISMA Group (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine 6:1–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. DeVellis RF (1991) Scale development. Sage Publications, New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  30. Matthey S (1998) p < 0.05—but is it clinically significant? Practical examples for clinicians. Behav Change 15:140–146

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Hewitt P, Blasberg J, Flett G, Besser A, Sherry S, Caelian C, Papsdorf M, Cassels T, Birch S (2011) Perfectionistic self-presentation in children and adolescents: development and validation of the perfectionistic self-presentation scale-junior form. Psychol Assess 23:125–142

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Slaney R, Rice K, Mobley M, Trippi J, Ashby J (2001) The revised almost perfect scale. Meas Eval Counsel Dev 34:130–145

    Google Scholar 

  33. Frost R, Marten P, Lahart C, Rosenblate R (1990) The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognit Ther Res 14:449–468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Rice K, Kubal A, Preusser K (2004) Perfectionism and children’s self-concept: further validation of the adaptive/maladaptive perfectionism scale. Psychol Schools 41:279–290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Davis M, Wosinski N (2012) Cognitive errors as predictors of adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism in children. J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther 30:105–117

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Affrunti N, Gramszlo C, Woodfruff-Borden J (2016) Executive function moderates the association between fearful temperament and dimensions of perfectionism. Pers Individ Dif 89:117–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Affrunit N, Woodruff-Boarden J (2016) Emotional control mediates the association between dimensions of perfectionism and worry in children. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 48:73–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Asseraf M, Vaillancourt T (2015) Longitudinal links between perfectionism and depression in children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 43:895–908

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. DiBartolo P, Verner S (2012) How children’s cognitive and affective responses to a novel task relate to the dimensions of perfectionism. J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther 30:62–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Essau C, Conradt J, Sasagawa S, Ollendick T (2012) Prevention of anxiety symptoms in children: results from a universal school-based trial. Behav Ther 43:450–464

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Fairweather-Schmidt K, Wade TD (2015) Piloting a perfectionism intervention for pre-adolescent children. Behav Res Ther 73:67–73

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Flett G, Coulter L, Hewitt P, Nepon T (2011) Perfectionism, rumination, worry, and depressive symptoms in early adolescents. Can J Sch Psychol 26:159–176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Greenaway R, Howlin P (2010) Dysfunctional attitudes and perfectionism and their relationship to anxious and depressive symptoms in boys with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 40:1179–1187

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Goodwin H, Haycraft E, Willis A, Meyer C (2001) Compulsive exercise: the role of personality, psychological morbidity, and disordered eating. Int J Eat Disord 44:655–660

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Hewitt P, Caelian C, Flett G, Sherry S, Collins L, Flynn C (2002) Perfectionism in children: associations with depression, anxiety, and anger. Pers Individ Dif 32:1049–1061

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Kenney-Benson G, Pomerantz E (2005) The role of mother’s use of control in children’s perfectionism: implications for the development of children’s depressive symptoms. J Personal 73:23–46

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Kirsh G, McVey G, Tweed S, Katzman D (2007) Psychosocial profiles of young adolescent females seeking treatment for an eating disorder. J Adolesc Health 40:351–356

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Lambert S, Robinson L, Ialongo S (2014) The role of socially prescribed perfectionism in the link between perceived racial discrimination and African American adolescents’ depressive symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol 42:577–587

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. McCreary B, Joiner T, Schmidt N, Ialongo N (2004) The structure and correlates of perfectionism in African American Children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 33:313–324

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. McVey G, Davis R, Tweed S, Shaw B (2004) Evaluation of a school-based program designed to improve body image satisfaction, global self-esteem, and eating attitudes and behaviours: a replication study. Int J Eat Disord 36:1–11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Mitchell J, Broeran S, Newall Hudson H (2013) An experimental manipulation of maternal perfectionistic anxious rearing behaviours with anxious and non-anxious children. J Exp Child Psychol 116:1–18

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Nobel R, Manassis K, Wilansky-Traynor P (2012) The role of perfectionism in relation to an intervention to reduce anxious and depressive symptoms in children. J Ration Emot Cogn Behav Ther 30:77–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Saling M, Ricciardelli L, McCabe M (2005) A prospective study of individual factors in the development of weight and muscle concerns among preadolescent children. J Youth Adolesc 34:651–661

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Stornelli D, Flett G, Hewitt P (2009) Perfectionism, achievement, and affect in children: a comparison of students from gifted, arts, and regular programs. Can J Sch Psychol 24:267–283

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Tong Y, Lam S (2011) The cost of being mother’s ideal child. The role of internalisation in the development of perfectionism and depression. Soc Dev 20:504–516

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. D’Alessandro D, Burton K (2006) Development and validation of the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale for Children: tests of Beck’s cognitive diathesis-stress theory of depression, of its causal medication component and of developmental effects. Cognit Ther Res 30:335–353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. McWhinnie C, Abela J, Knäuper B, Zhang C (2009) Development and validation of the revised children’s Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale. J Clin Psychol 48:287–308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Ashby J, Dickinson W, Gnilka P, Noble C (2011) Hope as a mediator and moderator of multidimensional perfectionism and depression in middle school students. J Couns Dev 89:131–139

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Gilman R, Adams R, Nounopoulos A (2010) The interpersonal relationships and social perceptions of adolescent perfectionists. J Res Adolesc 21:505–511

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Gilman R, Ashby J (2003) A first study of perfectionism and multidimensional life satisfaction among adolescents. J Early Adolesc 23:218–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  61. Gilman R, Ashby J (2003) Multidimensional perfectionism in a sample of middle school students: an exploratory investigation. Psychol Schools 40:677–689

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Vandiver B, Worrell F (2002) The reliability and validity of scores on the almost perfect scale-revised with academically talented middle school students. J Secondary Gifted Educ 13:108–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Clark S, Coker S (2009) Perfectionism, self-criticism and maternal criticism: a study of mothers and their children. Pers Individ Dif 47:321–325

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Parker W, Stumpf H (1995) An examination of the multidimensional perfectionism scale with a sample of academically talented children. J Psychoeduc Assess 13:372–383

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Siegle S, Schuler P (2000) Perfectionism differences in gifted middle school students. Roeper Rev 23:39–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Wade T, Wilksch S, Paxton Byrne S, Bryn A (2015) How perfectionism and ineffectiveness influence growth of eating disorder risk in young adolescent girls. Behav Res Ther 66:156–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Wilksch S, Paxton S, Bryne A, Austin S, McLean S, Thompson K, Dorairaj K, Wade T (2015) Prevention across the spectrum: a randomised controlled trial of three programs to reduce risk factors for both eating disorders and obesity. Psychol Med 45:1811–1823

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Stumpf H, Parker W (2000) A hierarchical structural analysis of perfectionism and its relation to personality characteristics. Pers Individ Dif 28:837–852

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Adler A (1956) The neurotic disposition. In: Ansbacher HL, Ansbacher RR (eds) The individual psychology of Alfred Adler. Harper, New York, pp 239–262

    Google Scholar 

  70. Hamacheck DE (1978) Psychodynamics of normal and neurotic and neurotic perfectionism. Psychology 15:27–33

    Google Scholar 

  71. Piers E, Harris D (1969) Piers-Harris children’s self-concept scale. Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles

    Google Scholar 

  72. Hewitt P, Flett G (1991) Perfectionism in the self and social contexts: conceptualisation, assessment and association with psychopathology. J Pers Soc Psychol 60:456–470

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Vekas E, Wade T (2017) The impact of a universal intervention targeting perfectionism in children: an exploratory controlled trial. BJC. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjc.12152 (Epub ahead of print)

    Google Scholar 

  74. Beck A, Brown G, Steer RA, Weissman AN (1991) Factor analysis of the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale in a clinical population. J Consult Clin Psychol 3:478–483

    Google Scholar 

  75. Abela J, Sullivan C (2003) A test of Beck’s cognitive diathesis-stress theory of depression in early adolescents. J Early Adolesc 23:384–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Hewitt PL, Flett GL, Sherry SB et al (2003) The interpersonal expression of perfection: perfectionistic self-presentation and psychological distress. J Pers Soc Psychol 84:1303–1325

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Stoeber J, Otto K (2006) Positive conceptions of perfectionism: approaches, evidence, challenges. Pers Soc Psychol Rev 10:295–319

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Costa PT, McCrae RR (1992) Revised NEO personality inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO five-factor inventory (NEO-FFI): professional manual. Psychol Assess Resour, Florida

    Google Scholar 

  79. Stöber J (1998) The Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale revisited: more perfect with four (instead of six) dimensions. Pers Individ Dif 24:481–491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Tusi J, Mazzocco M (2007) Effects of math anxiety and perfectionism on timed versus untimed maths testing in mathematically gifted sixth graders. Roper Rev 29:132–139

    Google Scholar 

  81. Craig P, Dieppe P, Macintyre S, Michie S, Nazareth I, Petticrew M (2013) Developing and evaluation complex interventions: the new medical research council guidance. BMJ 337:979–983

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, Flinders University, PO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA, 5001, Australia

    Elizabeth M. Leone & Tracey D. Wade

Authors
  1. Elizabeth M. Leone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tracey D. Wade
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tracey D. Wade.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Leone, E.M., Wade, T.D. Measuring perfectionism in children: a systematic review of the mental health literature. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27, 553–567 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-1078-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-1078-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation