Abstract
Background
The validity of clinical guidelines changes over time, because new evidencebased knowledge and experience develop.
Objective
Hence, the European clinical guidelines on hyperkinetic disorder from 1998 had to be evaluated and modified.
Method
Discussions at the European Network for Hyperkinetic Disorders (EUNETHYDIS) and iterative critique of each clinical analysis. Guided by evidence-based information and based on evaluation (rather than metaanalysis) of the scientific evidence a group of child psychiatrists and psychologists from several European countries updated the guidelines of 1998. When reliable information is lacking the group gives a clinical consensus when it could be found among themselves.
Results
The group presents here a set of recommendations for the conceptualisation and management of hyperkinetic disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Conclusion
A general scheme for practice in Europe could be provided, on behalf of the European Society for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (ESCAP).
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abikoff H (1991) Cognitive training in ADHD children: less to it than meets the eye. J Learning Disabil 24:205–209
Aman MG, Turbott SH (1991) Prediction of clinical response in children taking methylphenidate. J Autism Devel Disord 21:211–228
Aman MG, De Smedt G, Derivan A, Lyons B, Findling RL; Risperidone Disruptive Behavior Study Group (2002) Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone for the treatment of disruptive behaviors in children with subaverage intelligence. Am J Psychiatry 159:1337–1346
Arnsten AFT (2001) Dopaminergic and noradrenergic influences on cognitive functions mediated by prefrontal cortex. In: Solanto MV, Arnsten AFT, Castellanos FX (eds) Stimulant Drugs and ADHD. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience. New York, NY, Oxford University Press, pp 185–208
Asghari V, Sanyal S, Buchwaldt S, Paterson A, Jovanovic V, Van Tol HH (1995) Modulation of intracellular cyclic AMP levels by different human dopamine D4 receptor variants. J Neurochemistry 65:1157–1165
Bakker SC, van der Meulen EM, Buitelaar JK, Sandkuijl LA, Pauls DL, Monsuur AJ, van ’t Slot R, Minderaa RB, Gunning WB, Pearson PL, Sinke RJ (2003) A whole-genome scan in 164 Dutch sib pairs with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: suggestive evidence for linkage on chromosomes 7p and 15q. Am J Human Gen 72:1251–1260
Banaschewski T, Brandeis D, Heinrich H, Albrecht B, Brunner E, Rothenberger A (2003) Questioning inhibitory control as the specific deficit of ADHD – evidence from brain electrical activity. J Neural Transm (2004) 111(7):841–864 Epub 2003 Oct 24
Banaschewski T, Roessner V, Dittmann RW, Santosh PJ, Rothenberger A (2004) Non-stimulant medications in the treatment of ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 13(Suppl 1):I102–I116
Barkley RA (1997) Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol Bull 121:65–94
Barkley RA (1988) The effects of methylphenidate on the interactions of preschool ADHD children with their mothers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27:336–341
Barkley RA (ed) (1998) Attention- Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment 2nd edn.New York, Guilford Press
Barr CL, Feng Y, Wigg K, Bloom S, Roberts W, Malone M, Schachar R, Tannock R, Kennedy JL (2000) Identification of DNA variants in the SNAP-25 gene and linkage study of these polymorphisms and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 54:405–409
Barry RJ, Johnstone SJ, Clarke AR (2003) A review of electrophysiology in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: II. Event-related potentials. Clin Neurophysiol 114:184–198
Berger A, Posner MI (2000) Pathologies of brain attentional networks. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24:3–5
Berkovitch M, Pope E, Phillips J, Koren G (1995) Pemoline-associated fulminant liver failure: testing the evidence for causation. Clin Pharmacol Therapy 57:696–698
Biederman J, Faraone SV, Keenan K, Benjamin J, Krifcher B, Moore C, Sprich-Buckminster S, Ugaglia K, Jellinek MS, Steingard R, et al. (1992) Further evidence for family-genetic risk factors in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Patterns of comorbidity in probands and relatives psychiatrically and pediatrically referred samples. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49:728–738
Biederman J, Milberger S, Faraone SV, Kiely K, Guite J, Mick E, Ablon S, Warburton R, Reed E (1995) Family-environment risk factors for attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder. A test of Rutter’s indicators of adversity. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:464–470
Blanz B, Lehmkuhl G, Poustka F, Remschmidt H, Schmidt M, Warnke A (1999) Guidelines for diagnosis and therapy. Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie 27:91–92
Bor W, Sanders MS, Markie-Dadds C (2002) The effects of the tripe P-Positve Parenting Program on preschool children with co-occurring disruptive behavior and attentional/hyperactive difficulties. J Abnorm Child Psychol 30:571–589
Borcherding BG, Keysor CS, Rapoport JL, Elia J, Amass (1990) Motor/vocal tics and compulsive behaviors on stimulant drugs: is there a common vulnerability? Psychiatry Res 33:83–94
Boyle MH, Offord DR, Hoffmann HG, Catlin GP, Byles JA, Cadman DT, Crawford JW, Links PS, Rae-Grant NI Szatmari P (1987) Ontario Child Health Study: I Methodology; II. Six-month prevalence of disorder and rates of service utilisation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:826–836
Bramble D (2003) Annotation: The use of psychotropic medications in children: a British view. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 44:169–179
Brandeis D, Banaschewski T, Baving L, Georgiewa P, Blanz B, Warnke A, Steinhausen HC, Rothenberger A, Scheuerpflug P (2002) Multicenter P300 brain mapping of impaired attention to cues in hyperkinetic children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:990–998
Breslau N, Brown GG, DelDotto JE, Kumar S, Ezhuthachan S, Andreski P, Hufnagle KG (1996) Psychiatric sequelae of low birth weight at 6 years of age. J Abnorm Child Psychol 24:385–400
Buitelaar JK, Kooij JJS (2000) Aandachtstekort/ hyperactiviteitsstoornis – ADHD. Achtergronden, diagnostiek en behandeling. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde 144:1716–1723
Buitelaar JK (2002) Epidemiology ofAttention- deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: what have we learned over the last decade? In: Sandberg S (ed) Hyperactivity Disorders. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp 30–63
Carter CM, Urbanowicz M, Hemsley R, Mantilla L, Strobel S, Graham PJ, Taylor E (1993) Effects of a few food diet in attention deficit disorder. Arch Dis Childhood 69:564–568
Castellanos FX (2001) Neuroimaging studies of ADHD. In: Solanto MV, Arnsten AFT, Castellanos FX (eds) Stimulant Drugs and ADHD. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience. New York, NY, Oxford University Press, pp 243–258
Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W, Jeffries NO, Greenstein DK, Clasen LS, Blumenthal JD, James RS, Ebens CL, Walter JM, Zijdenbos A, Evans AC, Giedd JN, Rapoport JL (2002) Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Med Assoc 288:1740–1748
Curran S, Mill J, Tahir E, Kent L, Richards S, Gould A, Huckett L, Sharp J, Batten C, Fernando S, Ozbay F, Yazgan Y, Simonoff E, Thompson M, Taylor E, Asherson P (2001) Association study of a dopamine transporter polymorphism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in UK and Turkish samples. Molecular Psychiatry 6:425–428
Daly G, Hawi Z, Fitzgerald M, Gill M (1999) Mapping susceptibility loci in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: preferential transmission of parental alleles at DAT1, DBH and DRD5 to affected children. Molecular Psychiatry 4:192–196
Döpfner M (1996) Hyperkinetische Stoerungen. In: Petermann F (ed) Lehrbuch der Klinischen Kinderpsychologie 2nd edn. Goettingen, Hogrefe
Döpfner M, Lehmkuhl G (2003) Hyperkinetische Störungen (F90). In: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Berufsverband der Ärzte für Kinderund Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie in Deutschland, Bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft der leitenden Klinikärzte für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie (eds) Leitlinien zur Diagnostik und Therapie von psychischen Störungen im Säuglings-, Kindes- und Jugendalter 2nd edn. Köln, Deutscher Ärzte Verlag, pp 237–249
Döpfner M, Schmeck K, Poustka F, Berner W, Lehmkuhl G, Verhulst F (1996) Verhaltensauffaelligkeiten von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland, den Niederlanden und den U.S.A., Eine kulturvergleichende Studie mit der Child Behavior Checklist. Nervenarzt 67:960–967 I/26 European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 13, Supplement 1 (2004) © Steinkopff Verlag 2004
Döpfner M, Frölich J, Lehmkuhl G (2000) Hyperkinetische Störungen. Leitfaden Kinder- und Jugendpsychotherapie Vol 1. Göttingen, Hogrefe
Döpfner M, Breuer D, Schürmann S, Wolff Metternich T, Rademacher C, Lehmkuhl G (2004) Effectiveness of an individually tailored multimodal treatment in children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – global outcome. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 13(Suppl 1):I117–I129
Dougherty DD, Bonab AA, Spencer TJ, Rauch SL, Madras BK, Fischman AJ (1999) Dopamine transporter density in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet 354:2132–2133
DuPaul G J, Eckert TL (1997) The effects of school-based interventions for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A meta-analysis. School Psychol Rev 23:5–27
DuPaul G, McGoey K, EcKert T, Van- Brackle J (2001) Preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Impairments in behavioral, social, and school functioning. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40:508–515
DuPaul GJ, Stoner G (1994) ADHD in the Schools. Assessment and Intervention Strategies.New York, Guilford
Egger J, Carter CM, Graham PJ, Gumley D, Soothill JF (1985) Controlled trial of oligoantigenic treatment in the hyperkinetic syndrome. Lancet i:540–545
Ernst M, Zametkin AJ, Matochik JA, Jons PH, Cohen RM (1998) DOPA decarboxylase activity in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder adults. A [fluorine- 18]fluorodopa positron emission tomographic study. J Neurosci 18:5901–5907
Ernst M, Zametkin AJ, Matochik JA, Pascualvaca D, Jons PH, Cohen RM (1999) High midbrain [18F]DOPA accumulation in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 156:1209–1215
Ernst M, Liebenauer LL, Tebeka D, Jons PH, Eisenhofer G, Murphy DL, Zametkin AJ (1997) Selegiline in ADHD adults: plasma monoamines and monoamine metabolites. Neuropsychopharmacology 16:276–284
Faraone SV, Biederman J (1994) Is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder familial? Harvard Rev Psychiatry 1:271–287
Faraone SV, Doyle AE, Mick E, Biederman J (2001) Meta-analysis of the association between the 7-repeat allele of the dopamine D(4) receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry 158:1052–1057
Filipek PA, Semrud-Clikeman M, Steingard RJ, Renshaw PF, Kennedy DN, Biederman J (1997) Volumetric MRI analysis comparing subjects having attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder with normal controls. Neurology 48:589–601
Feingold BF (1975) Hyperkinesis and learning disabilities linked to artificial food flavors and colors. Am J Nursing 75:797–803
Fuke S, Suo S, Takahashi N, Koike H, Sasagawa N, Ishiura S (2001) The VNTR polymorphism of the human dopamine transporter (DAT1) gene affects gene expression. Pharmacogenomics 1:152–156
Gadow K, Nolan E (2002) Differences between preschool children with ODD, ADHD, and ODD & ADHD symptoms. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 43:191–201
Gillberg C, Carlstrom G, Rasmussen P (1983) Hyperkinetic disorders in children with perceptual, motor and attentional deficits. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 24:233–246
Gillberg C, Melander H, von Knorring A.-L, Janols L-O, Thernlund G, Haeggloef B, Eideval-Wallin L, Gustaffson P, Kopp S (1997) Long-term stimulant treatment of children with Attention- Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptoms: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54:857–864
Gillberg C (2003) Deficits in attention, motor control, and perception: a brief review. Arch Dis Childhood 88:904–910
Gillberg C, Gillberg IC, Rasmussen P, Kadesjö B, Söderström H, Råstam M, Johnson M, Rothenberger A, Niklasson L (2004) Co-existing disorders in ADHD – implications for diagnosis and intervention. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 13(Suppl 1):I80–I92
Gjone H, Stevenson J, Sundet JM (1996) Genetic influence on parent-reported attention-related problems in a Norwegian general population twin sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:588–598
Glow RA (1981) Cross-validity and normative data on the Conners’ Parent and Teacher Rating Scales. In: Gadow KD, Loney J (eds) The Psychosocial Aspects of Drug Treatment for Hyperactivity. Boulder, CO, Westview Press, pp 107–150
Goodman R, Stevenson J (1989) A twin study of hyperactivity: I An examination of hyperactivity scores and categories derived from Rutter Teacher and Parent Questionnaires. II. The aetiological role of genes, family relationships, and perinatal adversity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 30:671–710
Green WH (1991) Child and Adolescent Clinical Psychopharmacology. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins
Greenhill LL, Setterberg S (1993) Pharmacotherapy of disorders of adolescents. Psychiatry Clinics of North America 16:793–814
Gross MD (1995) Buspirone in ADHD with ODD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:1260
Gross-Tsur V, Manor O, v. d. Meere J, Josphe A, Shalev RS (1997) Epilepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Is methylphenidate safe and effective? J Pediatr 130:670–674
Gualtieri CT, Ondrusek MG, Finley C (1985) Attention deficit disorder in adults. Clin Neuropharmacol 8:343–356
Halperin JM, Newcorn JH, Schwartz ST, Sharma V, Siever LJ, Koda VH, Gabriel S (1997) Age-related changes in the association between serotonergic function and aggression in boys with ADHD. Biol Psychiatry 41:682–689
Handen BL, Feldman HM, Lurier A, Murray PJH (2000) Efficacy of methylphenidate among preschool children with developmental disabilities and ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38:805–812
Harrington R, Myatt T (2003) Is preadolescent mania the same condition as adult mania? A British perspective. Biol Psychiatry 53:961–969
Hawi Z, Dring M, Kirley A, Foley D, Kent L, Craddock N, Asherson P, Curran S, Gould A, Richards S, Lawson D, Pay H, Turic D, Langley K, Owen M, O’Donovan M, Thapar A, Fitzgerald M, Gill M (2002) Serotonergic system and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a potential susceptibility locus at the 5-HT(1B) receptor gene in 273 nuclear families from a multi-centre sample. Molecular Psychiatry 7:718–725
Hazell PL, Carr V, Lewin TJ, Sly K (2003) Manic symptoms in young males with ADHD predict functioning but not diagnosis after 6 years. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42:552–560
Hemmer SA, Pasternak JF, Zecker SG, Trommer BL (2001) Stimulant therapy and seizure risk in children with ADHD. Pediatr Neurol 24:99–102
Herbert M (1994) Behavioural methods. In: Rutter M, Hersov L, Taylor E (eds) Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Modern Approaches 3rd edn. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp 858–879
Hill P, Taylor E (2001) An auditable protocol for the medical management of ADHD or hyperkinetic disorder. Arch Dis Childhood 84:404–409
Huss M, Lehmkuhl U (2002) Methylphenidate and substance abuse: a review of pharmacology, animal, and clinical studies. J Attention Disord 6 (Suppl 1):S65–S71
Jadad AR, Boyle M, Cunningham C, Kim M, Schachar R (1998) The treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an evidence report. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, US Department of Health and Human Services, Rockville, MD
Jadad AR, Booker L, Gauld M, Kakuma R, Boyle M, Cunningham CE, Kim M, Schachar R (1999) The treatment of attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder: an annotated bibliography and critical appraisal of published systematic reviews and meta-analysis. Can J Psychiatry 44:1025–1035
James A, Taylor EA (1990) Sex differences in the hyperkinetic syndrome of childhood. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 31:437–446
Johnston C, Fine S (1993) Methods of evaluating methylphenidate in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: acceptability, satisfaction, and compliance. J Pediatr Psychol 18:717–730
Kadesjö B, Gillberg C (2001) The comorbidity of ADHD in the general population of Swedish school-age children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42:487–492
Kahn RS, Khoury J, Nichols WC, Lanphear BP (2003) Role of dopamine transporter genotype and maternal prenatal smoking in childhood hyperactive- impulsive, inattentive, and oppositional behaviors. J Pediatr 143:104–110
Kaplan BJ, McNicol J, Conte RA, Moghadam HK (1989) Dietary replacement in preschool-aged hyperactive boys. Pediatrics 83:7–17
Kent L, Craddock N (2003) Is there a relationship between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder? J Affective Disord 73:211–221
Klein RG, Wender P (1995) The role of methylphenidate in psychiatry. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:429–433
Köster I, Schubert I, Doepfner M, Adam C, Ihle P, Lehmkuhl G (2004) Hyperkinetische Störungen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen: Zur Häufigkeit des Behandlungsanlasses in der ambulanten Versorgung nach den Daten der Versichertenstichprobe AOK Hessen/KV Hessen (1998–2001). Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie (in press)
Krause KH, Krause J (2000) Ist Methylphenidat bei Komorbidität von Epilepsie und Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit, – hyperaktivitätsstörungen kontraindiziert oder nicht? Aktuelle Neurologie 27:72–76
Kuntsi J, Oosterlaan J, Stevenson J (2001) Psychological mechanisms in hyperactivity: I Response inhibition deficit, working memory impairment, delay aversion, or something else? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42:199–210
Krause KH, Dresel SH, Krause J, Kung HF, Tatsch K (2000) Increased striatal dopamine transporter in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission computed tomography. Neuroscience Letters 285:107–110
Lahey BB, Applegate B, McBurnett K, Biederman J, Greenhill L, Hynd GW, Barkley RA, Newcorn J, Jensen P, Richters J et al. (1994) DSM-IV field trials for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 151:1673–1685
LaHoste GJ, Swanson JM, Wigal SB, Glabe C, Wigal T, King N, Kennedy JL (1996) Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 1:121–124
Levin FR, Evans SM, McDowell DM, Brooks DJ, Nunes E (2002) Bupropion treatment for cocaine abuse and adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Addictive Dis 21:1–16
Leung PWL, Luk SL, Ho TP, Taylor E, Mak FL, Bacon-Shone J (1996) The diagnosis and prevalence of hyperactivity in Chinese schoolboys. Br J Psychiatry 168:486–496
Lord J, Paisley S (2000) The Clinical Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Methylphenidate for Hyperactivity in Childhood. Version 2. London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence
Lynskey MT, Hall W (2001) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorders: Is there a causal link? Addiction 96:815–822
McGee R, Share DL (1988) Attention deficit disorder-hyperactivity and academic failure: which comes first and what should be treated? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27:318–325
McGee R, Williams S, Silva PA (1987) A comparison of girls and boys with teacher-identified problems of attention. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 26:711–717
Mariani MA, Barkley RA (1997) Neuropsychological and academic functioning in preschool boys with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Devel Neuropsychol 13:111–129
Maher BS, Marazita ML, Ferrell RE, Vanyukov MM (2002) Dopamine system genes and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis. Psychiatr Gen 12:207–215
Mattes JA, Gittelman R (1981) Effects of artificial food colorings in children with hyperactive symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 38:714–718
Michelson D, Faries D, Wernicke J, Kelsey D, Kendrick K, Sallee FR, Spencer (2001) Atomoxetine in the treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-response study. Pediatrics 108:E83
Mick E, Biederman J, Faraone SV (1996) Is season of birth a risk factor for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:1470–1476
Milberger S, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Guite J, Tsuang MT (1997) Pregnancy, delivery and infancy complications and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: issues of gene-environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry 41:65–75
Mill J, Asherson P, Browes C, D’Souza U, Craig I (2002a) Expression of the dopamine transporter gene is regulated by the 3’ UTR VNTR: Evidence from brain and lymphocytes using quantitative RT-PCR. Am J Med Gen 114:975–979
Mill J, Curran S, Kent L, Gould A, Huckett L, Richards S, Taylor E, Asherson P (2002b) Association study of a SNAP-25 microsatellite and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Gen 114:269–271
Misener VL, Luca P, Azeke O, Crosbie J, Waldman I, Tannock R, Roberts W, Malone M, Schachar R, Ickowicz A, Kennedy JL, Barr CL (2004) Linkage of the dopamine receptor D1 gene to attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 9:500–509
Moll GH, Heinrich H, Trott G, Wirth S, Rothenberger A (2000) Deficient intracortical inhibition in drug-naive children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder is enhanced by methylphenidate. Neuroscience Letters 284:121–125
Moll GH, Rothenberger A, Ruether E, Huether G (2002) Developmental psychopharmacology in child and adolescent psychiatry: results of experimental animal studies with fluoextine and methylphenidate in rats. Psychopharmakotherapy 9:19–24
Monteiro-Musten L, Firestone P, Pisterman S, Bennett S, Mercer J (1997) Effects of methylphenidate on preschool children with ADHD: Cognitive and behavioral functions. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36:1407–1415
MTA Cooperative Group (1999a) A 14-month randomised clinical trial of treatment strategies for attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56:1073–1086 I/28 European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 13, Supplement 1 (2004) © Steinkopff Verlag 2004
MTA Cooperative Group (1999b) Moderators and mediators of treatment response for children with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56:1088–1096
Nadder TS, Rutter M, Silberg JL, Maes HH, Eaves LJ (2002) Genetic effects on the variation and covariation of attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional-defiant disorder/ conduct disorder (Odd/CD) symptomatologies across informant and occasion of measurement. Psychol Med 32:39–53
Nehra A, Mullick F, Ishak KG, Zimmerman HJ (1990) Pemoline-associated hepatic injury. Gastroenterology 99:1517–1519
Neligan GA, Kolvin I, Scott DMcL, Garside RF (1976) Born Too Soon or Born Too Small. Clinics in Developmental Medicine No. 61. London, S. I. M. P./Heinemann
Nichols P, Chen T-C (1981) Minimal Brain Dysfunction: A Prospective Study.Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum
Oades RD (1998) Frontal, temporal and lateralized brain function in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a psychophysiological and neuropsychological viewpoint on development. Behav Brain Res 94:83–95
Pelham WE, Wheeler T, Chronis A (1998) Empirically supported psychosocial treatments for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Child Psychol 27:190–205
Pelham W, Waschbusch DA (1999) Behavioral intervention in attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder. In: Quay H, Hogan AE (eds) Handbook of disruptive disorders. New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum, pp 255–278
Pennington BF, Ozonoff S (1996) Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 37:51–87
Pennington BF, Groisser D, Welsh MC (1993) Contrasting cognitive deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder versus reading disability. Devel Psychol 29:511–523
Pliszka SR (1989) Effect of anxiety on cognition, behavior, and stimulant response in ADHD. J Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:882–887
Prendergast M, Taylor E, Rapoport JL, Bartko J, Donnelly M, Zametkin A, Ahearn MB, Dunn G, Wieselberg HM (1988) The diagnosis of childhood hyperactivity: A U. S.-UK cross-national study of DSM-III and ICD-9. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 29:289–300
Quist JF, Barr CL, Schachar R, Roberts W, Malone M, Tannock R, Basile VS, Beitchman J, Kennedy JL (2003) The serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry 8:98–102
Reeve E, Garfinkel B (1991) Neuroendocrine and growth regulation: the role of sympathicomimetic medication. In: Greenhill L, Osman BB (eds) Ritalin: Theory and Management. New York, Liebert, pp 289–300
Riggs PD, Leon SL, Mikulich SK, Pottle LC (1998) An open trial of bupropion for AD/HD in adolescents with substance use disorders and conduct disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 37:1271–1278
Robbins TW (2002) AD/HD and addiction. Nature Medicine 8:24–25
Robinson TE, Berridge KC (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive- sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Rev 18:247–291
Ross DM, Ross SA (1982) Hyperactivity: Current Issues. Research and Theory. New York, Wiley
Rothenberger A, Banaschewski T (2004) Tic-Disorders. In: Gillberg C, Harrington R, Steinhausen HC (eds) A Clinician’s Handbook of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press (in press)
Rothenberger A, Banaschewski T, Heinrich H, Moll GH, Schmidt MH, van’t Klooster B (2000) Comorbidity in ADHD-children: effects of coexisting conduct disorder or tic disorder on event-related brain potentials in an auditory selective-attention task. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 250:101–110
Rubia K, Overmeyer S, Taylor E, Brammer M, Williams SC, Simmons A, Bullmore ET (1999) Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: a study with functional MRI. Am J Psychiatry 156:891–896
Rutter M, Roy P, Kreppner J (2002) Institutional care as a risk factor for inattention/ overactivity. In: Sandberg S (ed) Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders of Childhood 2nd edn. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp 417–434
Sagvolden T (2000) Behavioral validation of the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) as an animal model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD). Neurosci Biobehav Rev 24:31–39
Sagvolden T, Sergeant JA (1998) Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder – from brain dysfunctions to behaviour. Behav Brain Res 94:1–10
Sandberg S (2002) Psychosocial contributions. In: Sandberg S (ed) Hyperactivity and Attention Disorder of Childhood, 2nd edn. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp 367–416
Santosh PJ, Taylor E (2000) Stimulant drugs. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 9 (Suppl 1):I27–I43
Schachar RJ, Rutter M, Smith A (1981) The characteristics of situationally and pervasively hyperactive children: implications for syndrome definition. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 22:375–392
Schachar R, Tannock R, Cunningham C (1996) Treatment. In: Sandberg S (ed) Hyperactivity Disorders of Childhood. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp 433–476
Schachar R, Tannock R (2002) Syndromes of Hyperactivity and Attention Deficit. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Modern Approaches 4th edn. Blackwell Publishing, pp 399–418
Scheres A, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2001) Response execution and inhibition in children with AD/HD and other disruptive disorders: the role of behavioural activation. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42:347–357
Schleifer M, Weiss G, Cohen N, Elman M, Cvejic H, Kruger E (1975) Hyperactivity in pre-schoolers and the effect of methylphenidate. Am J Orthopsychiatry 45:38–50
Schmidt JK, Plück J, v. Gontard A (2002) Verzicht auf eine EEG-Diagnostik vor Beginn und unter einer Therapie mit Methylpenidat: gefährlich oder gerechtfertigt? Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie 30:295–302
Schneider JS, Roeltgen DP (1993) Delayed matching-to-sample, object retrieval, and discrimination reversal deficits in chronic low dose MPTPtreated monkeys. Brain Research 615: 351–354
Schubert I, Lehmkuhl G, Spengler A, Doepfner M, von Ferber L (2001) Methylphenidat bei hyperkinetischen Störungen. Deutsches Ärzteblatt 98:A541–A544
Schulte-Koerne G, Deimel W, Gutenbrunner C, Hennighausen K, Blank R, Rieger C, Remschmidt H (1996) Effect of an oligo-antigen diet on the behaviour of hyperkinetic children. Zeitschrift fuer Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie 24:176–183
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (2001) Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders in Children and Young People. A National Clinical Guideline. Edinburgh, SIGN E. Taylor et al. I/29 European clinical guidelines for hyperkinetic disorder – first upgrade
Sergeant JA, Geurts H, Oosterlaan J (2002) How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder? Behav Brain Res 130:3–28
Sergeant J, Steinhausen H-C (1992) European perspectives on hyperkinetic disorder. Eur J Child Psychiatry 1:34–41
Shaffer D, Gould M S, Brasic J et al. (1983) A children’s global assessment scale (CGAS). Arch Gen Psychiatry 40:1228–1231
Silberg J, Rutter M, Meyer J, Maes H, Hewitt J, Simonoff E, Pickles A, Loeber R, Eaves L (1996) Genetic and environmental influences of the covariation between hyperactivity and conduct disturbance in juvenile twins. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 37:803–816
Singer HS, Brown J, Quaskey S, Rosenberg LA, Mellits ED, Denckla MB (1995) The treatment of Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder in Tourette’s syndrome: A double-blind placebo-controlled study with clonidine and desipramine. Pediatrics 95:74–81
Smalley SL, Kustanovich V, Minassian SL, Stone JL, Ogdie MN, McGough JJ, McCracken JT, MacPhie IL, Francks C, Fisher SE, Cantor RM, Monaco AP, Nelson SF (2002) Genetic linkage of attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder on chromosome 16p13, in a region implicated in autism. Am J Human Gen 71:959–963
Smith KM, Daly M, Fischer M, Yiannoutsos CT, Bauer L, Barkley R, Navia BA (2003) Association of the dopamine beta hydroxylase gene with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: genetic analysis of the Milwaukee longitudinal study. Am J Med Gen 15; 119B(1):77–85
Smith A, Taylor E, Rogers JW, Newman S, Rubia K (2002) Evidence for a pure time perception deficit in children with ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 43:529–542
Solanto MV, Abikoff H, Sonuga-Barke E, Schachar R, Logan GD, Wigal T, Hechtman L, Hinshaw S, Turkel E (2001) The ecological validity of delay aversion and response inhibition as measures of impulsivity in AD/HD: a supplement to the NIMH multimodal treatment study of AD/HD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 29:215–228
Sonuga-Barke E (2003) The dual pathway model of AD/HD: an elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neurosci & Biobehav Rev 27:593–604
Sonuga-Barke EJ (2002) Psychological heterogeneity in AD/HD – a dual pathway model of behaviour and cognition. Behav Brain Res 130:29–36
Sonuga-Barke EJS, Daley D, Thompson M, Swanson J (2003) The management of preschool AD/HD; Addressing uncertainties about syndrome validity, diagnostic utility and treatment safety. Expert Reviews in Neurotherapeutics 3:89–100
Sonuga-Barke EJS, Dalen L, Remington RE (2003) Do delay aversion and inhibitory deficits make distinct contributions to pre-school AD/HD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42:1335–1342
Sonuga-Barke EJS, Daley D, Thompson M, Laver-Bradbury C, Weekes A (2001) Parent-based therapies for preschool attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A randomized, controlled trial with a community sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40:402–408
Sonuga-Barke EJS, Thompson M, Stevenson J, Viney D (1997) Patterns of behaviour problems among preschool children. Psychol Med 27:909–918
Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Welcome SE, Henkenius AL, Toga AW, Peterson BS (2003) Cortical abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet 362(9397):1699–1707
Spencer T, Biederman J, Harding M, O’Donnell D, Faraone SV, Wilens TE (1996) Growth deficits in ADHD children revisited: Evidence for disorderassociated growth delays? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:1460–1469
Spencer T, Wilens T, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Ablon JS, Lapey K (1995) A double-blind, crossover comparison of methylphenidate and placebo in adults with childhood onset attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:434–443
Sprafkin J, Gadow KD, Nolan EE (2001) The utility of a DSM-IV-referenced screening instrument for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Emotion Behav Disord 9:182–191
Steinhausen H-C (1987) Global Assessment of Child Psychopathology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 26:203–206
Swanson JM, Kraemer HC, Hinshaw SP, Arnold LE, Conners CK, Abikoff H B, Clevenger W, Davies M, Elliott GR, Greenhill LL, Hechtman L, Hoza B, Jensen PS, March JS, Newcorn JH, Owens EB, Pelham WE, Schiller E, Severe JB, Simpson S, Vitiello B,Wells K, Wigal T, Wu M (2001) Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40:168–179
Swanson JM, Sergeant JA, Taylor E, Sonuga-Barke EJS, Jensen PJ, Cantwell DP (1998) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and hyperkinetic disorder. The Lancet 351:429–433
Taylor E, Chadwick O, Heptinstall E, Danckaerts M (1996) Hyperactivity and conduct problems as risk factors for adolescent development. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:1213–1226
Taylor E, Sandberg ST (1984) Hyperactive behavior in English schoolchildren: A questionnaire survey. J Abnorm Child Psychol 12:143–156
Taylor E, Sandberg S, Thorley G, Giles S (1991) The Epidemiology of Childhood Hyperactivity. Maudsley Monographs 33. Oxford, Oxford University Press
Taylor E, Schachar R, Thorle G, Wieselberg M (1986) Conduct disorder and hyperactivity. Br J Psychiatry 149:760–767
Taylor E, Schachar R, Thorley G, Wieselberg HM, Everit B, Rutter M (1987) Which boys respond to stimulant medication? A controlled trial of methylphenidate in boys with disruptive behaviour. Psychol Med 17:121–143
Taylor E, Sergeant J, Döpfner M, Gunning B, Overmeyer S, Mobius HJ, Eisert H-G (1998) Clinical guidelines for hyperkinetic disorder. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 7:184–200
Taylor E (1994) Syndromes of attention deficit and overactivity. In: Rutter M, Taylor E, Hersov L (eds) Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Modern Approaches. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, pp 285–307
Thapar A, Fowler T, Rice F, Scourfield J, van den Bree M, Thomas H, Harold G, Hay D (2003) Maternal smoking during pregnancy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in offspring. Am J Psychiatry 160:1985–1989
Thapar A, Hervas A, McGuffin P (1995) Childhood hyperactivity scores are highly heritable and show sibling competition effects: twin study evidence. Behavior Gen 25:537–544
Thapar A, Holmes J, Poulton K, Harrington R (1999) Genetic basis of attention deficit and hyperactivity. Br J Psychiatry 174:105–111
Toplak ME, Rucklidge JJ, Hetherington R, John SC, Tannock R (2003) Time perception deficits in attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder and comorbid reading difficulties in child and adolescent samples. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 44:888–903 I/30 European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Vol. 13, Supplement 1 (2004) © Steinkopff Verlag 2004
Todd RD, Rasmussen ER, Neuman RJ, Reich W, Hudziak JJ, Bucholz KK, Madden PA, Heath A (2001) Familiality and heritability of subtypes of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in a population sample of adolescent female twins. Am J Psychiatry 158:1891–1898
van Leeuwen TH, Steinhausen HC, Overtoom CC, Pascual-Marqui RD, van’t Klooster B, Rothenberger A, Sergeant JA, Brandeis D (1998) The continuous performance test revisited with neuroelectric mapping: impaired orienting in children with attention deficits. Behav Brain Res 94:97–110
Volkow ND, Swanson JM (2003) Variables that affect the clinical use and abuse of methylphenidate in the treatment of AD/HD. Am J Psychiatry 160:1909–1918
Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Fischman M, Foltin R, Abumrad NN, Gatley SJ, Logan J, Wong C, Gifford A, Ding YS, Hitzemann R, Pappas N (1999) Methylphenidate and cocaine have a similar in vivo potency to block dopamine transporters in the human brain. Life Sciences 65:L7–L12
Wender PH, Wood DR, Reimherr FW (1985) Pharmacological treatment of attention deficit disorder, residual type. Psychopharmacol Bull 21:222–231
Wilens TE, Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Geller B, Schleifer D, Spencer TJ, Birmaher B, Goldblatt A (1996) Cardiovascular effets of therapeutic doses of tricyclic antidepressants in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:1491–1501
Wilens TE, Biederman J, Brown S, Tanguay S, Monuteaux MC, Blake C, Spencer TJ (2002) Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and schoolage youths with ADHD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:262–268
Wilens TE, Biederman J (1992) The stimulants. In: Shafer D (ed) Psychiatric Clinics of North America. Philadelphia, Pa., WB, Saunders, pp 191–222
Wilens TE, Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV, SpencerT (1997) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (AD/ HD) is associated with early onset substance use disorders. J Nerv Mental Dis 185:475–482
Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Gunawardene S (2003) Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? A meta-analytic review of the literature. Pediatrics 111:179–185
Willcutt EG, Pennington BF, Smith SD, Cardon LR, Gayan J, Knopik VS, Olson RK, DeFries JC (2002) Quantitative trait locus for reading disability on chromosome 6p is pleiotropic for attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Gen 114:260–268
Willcutt EG, Pennington BF, DeFries JC (2000) Twin study of the etiology of comorbidity between reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Gen 96:293–301
World Health Organization (1996) Multiaxial classification of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders in children and adolescents. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press
Yordanova J, Banaschewski T, Kolev V, Woerner W, Rothenberger A (2001) Abnormal early stages of task stimulus processing in children with attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder – evidence from event-related gamma oscillations. Clin Neurophysiol 112:1096–1108
Yordanova J, Banaschewski T, Kolev V, Woerner W, Rothenberger A (2001) Abnormal early stages of task stimulus processing in children with attention- deficit hyperactivity disorder – evidence from event-related gamma oscillations. Clin Neurophysiol 112:241–247
Zametkin AJ, Liebenauer LL, Fitzgerald GA, King AC, Minkunas DV, Herscovitch P,Yamada EM,Cohen RM (1993) Brain metabolism in teenagers with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 50:333–340
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Taylor, E., Döpfner, M., Sergeant, J. et al. European clinical guidelines for hyperkinetic disorder – first upgrade. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 13 (Suppl 1), i7–i30 (2004). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-004-1002-x
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-004-1002-x