Abstract
The purpose of this study is to determine the prevalence of minor and major depression among pregnant women in the USA. Also, we compare prevalence of depression among pregnant and non-pregnant women while controlling for relevant covariates. A population-representative sample of pregnant women (n = 3010) surveyed for the 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System was compared to a sample of women who were not pregnant (n = 68,620). Binary logistic regression was used to determine prevalence ratios of depression for pregnant and non-pregnant women while controlling for the effects of age, race, annual income, employment status, educational level, marital status, general health, and availability of emotional support. Depression was measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire-8 (PHQ-8). The prevalence of major depression was no greater among pregnant women (6.1 %) compared to non-pregnant women (7 %; adjusted prevalence ratio (PR) = 1.1, 95 % confidence interval (CI) .8 and 1.5). The prevalence of minor depression was greater among pregnant women (16.6 %) compared to non-pregnant women (11.4 %; adjusted PR = 1.5, 95 % CI 1.2 and 1.9). Prevalence ratios are adjusted for the effects of covariates noted above. Prevalence of major depression is not associated with pregnancy, but minor depression is more likely among women who are pregnant.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alami KM, Kadri N, Berrada S (2006) Prevalence and psychosocial correlates of depressed mood during pregnancy and after childbirth in a Moroccan sample. Arch Womens Ment Health 9:343–346
Alder J, Fink N, Bitzer J, Hosli I, Holzgreve W (2007) Depression and anxiety during pregnancy: a risk factor for obstetric, fetal and neonatal outcome? A critical review of the literature. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 20:189–209
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Author, Washington, DC
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 5th edn. American Psychiatric Publishing, Arlington
Andersson L, Sundstrom-Poromaa I, Wulff M, Astrom M, Bixo M (2004) Implications of antenatal depression and anxiety for obstetric outcome. Obstet Gynecol 104:467–476
Bennett HA, Einarson A, Taddio A, Koren G, Einarson TR (2004) Prevalence of depression during pregnancy: systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 103:698–709
Blier P (2006) Pregnancy, depression, antidepressants and breast-feeding. J Psychiatry Neurosci 31:226–228
Bowen A, Muhajarine N (2006a) Antenatal depression. Can Nurse 102:26–30
Bowen A, Muhajarine N (2006b) Prevalence of antenatal depression in women enrolled in an outreach program in Canada. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 35:491–498
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006a) Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System 2006 Codebook Report. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006b) 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey. (http://www.cdc.gov/brfss/technical_infodata/surveydata/2006.htm).
Chung TK, Lau TK, Yip AS, Chiu HF, Lee DT (2001) Antepartum depressive symptomatology is associated with adverse obstetric and neonatal outcomes. Psychosom Med 63:830–834
Cohen LS, Altshuler LL, Harlow BL, Nonacs R, Newport DJ, Viguera AC et al (2006) Relapse of major depression during pregnancy in women who maintain or discontinue antidepressant treatment. JAMA 295:499–507
Correia LL, Linhares MB (2007) Maternal anxiety in the pre- and postnatal period: a literature review. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem 15:677–683
Dietz PM, Williams SB, Callaghan WM, Bachman DJ, Whitlock EP, Hornbrook MC (2007) Clinically identified maternal depression before, during, and after pregnancies ending in live births. Am J Psychiatry 164:1515–1520
Faisal-Cury A, Menezes PR (2007) Prevalence of anxiety and depression during pregnancy in a private setting sample. Arch Womens Ment Health 10:25–32
Fan AZ, Strine TW, Huang Y, Murray MR, Musingo S, Jiles R, Mokdad AH (2009) Self-rated depression and physician-diagnosed depression and anxiety in Florida adults: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2006. Prev Chronic Dis 6:1–14
Field T, Diego M, Hernandez-Reif M, Figueiredo B, Schanberg S, Kuhn C et al (2008) Chronic prenatal depression and neonatal outcome. Int J Neurosci 118:95–103
Gaynes BN, Gavin N, Meltzer-Brody S, Lohr KN, Swinson T, Gartlehner G, Brody S, Miller WC (2005) Perinatal depression: prevalence, screening accuracy, and screening outcomes. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 119. (Prepared by the RTI-University of North Carolina Evidence-based Practice Center, under Contract No. 290-02-0016.) AHRQ Publication No. 05-E006-2. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville
Hatton DC, Harrison-Hohner J, Matarazzo J, Edwards P, Lewy A, Davis L (2007) Missed antenatal depression among high risk women: a secondary analysis. Arch Womens Ment Health 10:121–123
Jomeen J, Martin CR (2007) Assessment and relationship of sleep quality to depression in early pregnancy. J Reprod Infant Psychol 25:87–99
Kroenke K, Spitzer RL (2002) The PHQ-9: a new depression diagnostic and severity measure. Psychiatr Ann 32:1–8
Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW (2001) The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med 16:606–613
Kroenke K, Strine TW, Spitzer RL, Williams JBW, Berry JT, Mokdad AH (2009) The PHQ-8 as a measure of current depression in the general population. J Affect Disord 114:163–173
Lindgren K (2001) Relationships among maternal-fetal attachment, prenatal depression, and health practices in pregnancy. Res Nurs Health 24:203–217
Marcus SM, Flynn HA, Blow FC, Barry KL (2003) Depressive symptoms among pregnant women screened in obstetrics settings. J Wom Health 12:373–380
O’Hara MW, Zekoski EM, Philipps LH, Wright EJ (1990) Controlled prospective study of postpartum mood disorders: comparison of childbearing and nonchildbearing women. J Abnorm Psychol 99:3–15
Orr ST, Blazer DG, James SA, Reiter JP (2007) Depressive symptoms and indicators of maternal health status during pregnancy. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 16:535–542
Records K, Rice M (2007) Psychosocial correlates of depression symptoms during the third trimester of pregnancy. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 36:231–242
Ross LE, Murray BJ, Steiner M (2005) Sleep and perinatal mood disorders: a critical review. J Psychiatry Neurosci 30:247–256
Suri R, Altshuler L, Hellemann G, Burt VK, Aquino A, Mintz J (2007) Effects of antenatal depression and antidepressant treatment on gestational age at birth and risk of preterm birth. Am J Psychiatry 164:1206–1213
Wolfson AR, Crowley SJ, Anwer U, Bassett JL (2003) Changes in sleep patterns and depressive symptoms in first-time mothers: last trimester to 1-year postpartum. Behav Sleep Med 1:54–67
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ashley, J.M., Harper, B.D., Arms-Chavez, C.J. et al. Estimated prevalence of antenatal depression in the US population. Arch Womens Ment Health 19, 395–400 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-015-0593-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-015-0593-1