Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Risk factors associated with trajectories of mothers’ depressive symptoms across the early parenting period: an Australian population-based longitudinal study

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Archives of Women's Mental Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Approximately 14 % of women experience depressive symptoms in the first postnatal year. Few studies have examined the persistence of symptoms beyond this time. This study aims to (a) assess the course of women’s depressive symptoms from the first postnatal year to when their children were aged 6–7 years, (b) identify distinct groups of women defined by their symptom trajectories over time, and (c) identify antenatal and early postnatal risk factors associated with persistent symptoms. Data from 4,879 women participating in the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children were analysed using latent growth modelling and logistic regression to identify risk factors associated with class membership. For the overall sample, depressive symptoms were highest during the first postnatal year and then gradually decreased over 6–7 years. Two distinct classes were identified with the majority of women (84 %) reporting minimal symptoms over time, and 16 % experiencing persistently high symptoms. Risk factors were younger maternal age, being from a non-English speaking background, not completing high school, having a past history of depression, antidepressant use during pregnancy, child development problems, lower parenting self-efficacy, poor relationship quality, and stressful life events. This research identifies risk factors that may predispose mothers to enduring depressive symptoms, offering opportunities for early identification and targeted early intervention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Affonso D, Lovett S, Paul S, Sheptak S, Nussbaum R, Newman L, Johnson B (1992) Dysphoric distress in childbearing women. J Perinatol 12(4):325–332

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandura A (1997) Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. Freeman, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck CT (1996) Postpartum depressed mothers’ experience interacting with their children. Nurs Res 45(2):98–104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beeghly M, Weinberg M, Olson K, Kernan H, Riley J, Tronick E (2002) Stability and change in level of maternal depressive symptomatology during the first postpartum year. J Affect Disord 71:169–180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bentler P (1990) Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychol Bull 107(2):238–246

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bryanton J, Gagnon A, Hatem M, Johnston C (2008) Predictors of early parenting self-efficacy: results of a prospective cohort study. Nurs Res 57(4):252–259

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke L (2003) The impact of maternal depression on familial relationships. Int Rev Psychiatry 15:243–255

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell S, Cohn J (1997) The timing and chronicity of postpartum depression. Implications for infant development. In: Copper PJ (ed) Postpartum depression and child development. Guildford, New York, pp 165–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen Y, Subramanian S, Acevedo-Garcia D, Kawachi I (2005) Women’s status and depressive symptoms: a multilevel analysis. Soc Sci Med 60:49–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Commonwealth Department of Family and Community Services (2004) Parenting information project. Volume 1: Main report. Canberra, Australia

  • Cooke M, Schmied V, Sheehan A (2007) An exploration of the relationship between postnatal distress and maternal role attainment, breast feeding problems and breast feeding cessation in Australia. Midwifery 23:66–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans J, Heron J, Francomb H, Oke S, Golding J (2001) Cohort study of depressed mood during pregnancy and after childbirth. Br Med J 232:257–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Giallo R, Cooklin A, Wade C, D’Esposito F, Nicholson J (2014) Maternal postnatal mental health and later emotional-behavioural development of children: the mediating role of parenting behaviour. Child: Care, Health and Development (in press)

  • Glascoe F (2000) Parents evaluation of developmental status—authorised Australian version. Centre for Community Child Health, Parkville

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman J (2004) Paternal postpartum depression, its relationship to maternal postpartum depression, and implications for family health. J Adv Nurs 45(1):26–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grace S, Evindar A, Stewart D (2003) The effect of postpartum depression on child cognitive development and behavior: a review and critical analysis of the literature. Arch Womens Ment Health 6:263–273

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halligan S, Murray L, Martins C, Cooper P (2007) Maternal depression and psychiatric outcomes in adolescent offspring: a 13-year longitudinal study. J Affect Disord 97:145–154

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hendrick S (1988) A generic measure of relationship satisfaction. J Marriage Fam 50(1):93–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hiscock H, Wake M (2001) Infant sleep problems and postnatal depression: a community-based study. Pediatrics 107(6):1317–1322

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz J, Goodman J (2004) A longitudinal study of maternal postpartum depression symptoms. Res Theory Nurs Pract Int J 18(2/3):149–163

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz J, Damato E, Solon L, von Metzsch G (1996) Identification of symptoms of postpartum depression: linking research to practice. J Perinatol 16(5):360–365

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones T, Prinz R (2005) Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: a review. Clin Psychol Rev 25(3):341–363

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler R, Barker P, Cople L, Epstein J, Gfroerer J, Hiripi E, Howes M, Normand S, Manderscheid R, Walters E, Zaslavsky A (2003) Screening for serious mental illness in the general population. Arch Psychiatry 60:184–189

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klier C, Rosenbaum K, Zeller M, Steinhardt K, Bergemann N, Muzik M (2008) A multirisk approach to predicting chronicity of postpartum depressive symptoms. Depression Anxiety 25:718–724

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar R, Robson M (1984) A prospective study of emotional disorders in childbearing women. Br J Psychiatry 144:35–47

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leahy-Warren P, McCarthy G, Corcoran P (2012) First-time mothers: social support, maternal parental self-efficacy and postnatal depression. J Clin Nurs 21(3–4):388–397

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leigh B, Milgrom J (2008) Risk factors for antenatal depression, postnatal depression and parenting stress. BMC Psychiatry 8(24)

  • Matthey S, Barnett B, Ungerer J, Waters B (2000) Paternal and maternal depressed mood during the transition to parenthood. J Affect Disord 60:75–85. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00159-7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCue Horwitz S, Briggs-Gowan M, Storfer-Isser A, Carter A (2007) Prevalence, correlates, and persistence of maternal depression. J Women's Health 16(5):678–691

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLennan J, Kotelchuck M, Cho H (2001) Prevalence, persistence, and correlates of depressive symptoms in a national sample of mothers of toddlers. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40(11):1316–1323

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon CA, Trapolini T, Barnett B (2008) Maternal state of mind regarding attachment predicts persistence of postnatal depression in the preschool years. J Affect Disord 107:199–203. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.07.017

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray L, Sinclair D, Cooper P, Ducournau P, Turner P (1999) The socioemotional development of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed mothers. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 40(8):1259–1271

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthen L, Muthen B (1998–2011) Mplus User’s Guide. Muthen & Muthen, Los Angeles

  • National Center for Education Statistics (2004) Early Childhood Longitudinal Study (ECLS). Department of Education, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hara M, Swain A (1996) Rates and risk of postpartum depression: a meta-analysis. Int Rev Psychiatry 8(1):37–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paulson J (2010) Focusing on depression in expectant and new fathers: prenatal and postpartum depression not limited to mothers. Psychiatr Times 27(2):48–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Post and Antenatal Depression Association (2012) The cost of perinatal depression in Australia. Deloitte Access Economics Pty Ltd, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross C (2000) Neighborhood disadvantage and adult depression. J Heal Soc Behav 41:177–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Small R, Brown S, Lumley J, Astbury J (1994) Missing voices: what women say and do about depression after childbirth. J Reprod Infant Psychol 12(2):89–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soloff C, Lawrence D, Johnstone R (2005) Sample design (LSAC Technical Paper, No. 1). Australian Institute of Family Studies, Commonwealth of Australia, Melbourne

  • Wang L, Wu T, Anderson J, Florence J (2011) Prevalence and risk factors of maternal depression during the first three years of child rearing. J Women's Health 20:711–718

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm K, Mitchell P, Slade T, Brownhill S, Andrews G (2003) Prevalence and correlates of DSM-IV major depression in an Australian National Survey. Journal of Affective Disorders 75:155–162

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This paper used data from the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. The study was conducted in partnership between the Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs (FaHCSIA), the Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS), and the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). This research was supported by PRC funding from the Victorian Government. The findings reported in this paper are those of the authors and should not be attributed to FaHCSIA, AIFS, or the ABS.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Parenting Research Centre, 5/232 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne, 3002, Victoria, Australia

    Rebecca Giallo, Amanda Cooklin & Jan M. Nicholson

  2. Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Royal Children’s Hospital, Flemington Road, Parkville, 3052, Victoria, Australia

    Rebecca Giallo

  3. RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, 3001, Victoria, Australia

    Rebecca Giallo

Authors
  1. Rebecca Giallo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Amanda Cooklin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jan M. Nicholson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Rebecca Giallo.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Giallo, R., Cooklin, A. & Nicholson, J.M. Risk factors associated with trajectories of mothers’ depressive symptoms across the early parenting period: an Australian population-based longitudinal study. Arch Womens Ment Health 17, 115–125 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0411-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00737-014-0411-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation