Abstract
Findings on working memory (WM) and inhibition in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are contradictory and earlier studies largely ignored individual differences. As WM and inhibition seem to be related, children who experience WM deficits might also experience inhibition deficits. Moreover, these children possibly form a distinct subgroup, differing on other variables, such as cognitive functioning, symptom severity, behavior, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) characteristics. We studied a large sample of children with and without ASD (8–12 years, IQ > 80) with classic experimental tasks (n-back task, ASD n = 77, control n = 45; stop task, ASD n = 74, control n = 43), and explored individual differences. The ASD group made more errors on the n-back task with increasing WM load, and had longer stop signal reaction times on the stop task when compared with controls. However, only 6 % of the ASD group showed both WM and inhibition deficits, and 71 % showed no deficits. Parents of children with WM and/or inhibition deficits tended to report more conduct problems on the disruptive behavior disorder rating scale. ADHD characteristics did not influence performance. Some children used medication during testing, which seemingly influenced stop task performance, but excluding these data did not change the main findings. Large individual differences in cognitive functioning are present, even within children with ASD with average or above average intelligence. However, whether individual differences in specific cognitive domains, such as WM and inhibition are as informative as individual differences in diagnosis, comorbidity, and general cognitive functioning, calls for future research.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Part of the groups overlapped; 20 children performed both tasks.
Please note that a part of the children also participated in a larger ongoing intervention study, and in the study of de Vries and Geurts (2012). Hence, more tasks were administered to the children, and more questionnaires were filled out by the parents. The study was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of the Academic Medical Center Amsterdam (METC 2010-185).
Analyses without children who used medication during the test sessions revealed that ASD traits did influence both n-back task R² = 0.05, F(1,100) = 5.21, p = 0.03, and stop task R² = 0.06, F(1,98) = 6.50, p = 0.01 performance. ADHD characteristics influenced neither n-back task R² change = 0.00, F(1,99) = 0.07, p = 0.80, nor stop task R² change = 0.01, F(1,97) = 0.56, p = 0.45 performance over and above ASD traits.
References
Adams NC, Jarrold C (2012) Inhibition in autism: children with autism have difficulty inhibiting irrelevant distractors but not prepotent responses. J Autism Dev Disord 42(6):1052–1063
Altgassen M, Schmitz-Hübsch M, Kliegel M (2010) Event-based prospective memory performance in autism spectrum disorder. J Neurodev Disord 2(1):2–8
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association, Washington
Andersen PN, Hovik KT, Skogli EW, Egeland J, Øie M (2013) Symptoms of ADHD in children with high-functioning autism are related to impaired verbal working memory and verbal delayed recall. PLoS One 8(5):e64842
Andersen PN, Skogli EW, Hovik KT, Geurts HM, Egeland J, Øie M (2014) Working memory arrest in children with high-functioning autism compared to children with ADHD: results from a two-year longitudinal study. Autism doi:10.1177/1362361314524844
Antrop I, Roeyers H, Oosterlaan J, Van Oost P (2002) Agreement between parent and teacher ratings of disruptive behavior disorders in children with clinically diagnosed ADHD. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 24(1):67–73
Barnard L, Muldoon K, Hasan R, O’Brien G, Stewart M (2008) Profiling executive dysfunction in adults with autism and comorbid learning disability. Autism 12(2):125–141. doi:10.1177/1362361307088486
Barneveld PS, de Sonneville L, van Rijn S, van Engeland H, Swaab H (2013) Impaired response inhibition in autism spectrum disorders, a marker of vulnerability to schizophrenia spectrum disorders? J Int Neuropsychol Soc JINS 19(6):646. doi:10.1017/S1355617713000167
Bennetto L, Pennington BF, Rogers SJ (1996) Intact and impaired memory functions in autism. Child Dev 67(4):1816–1835
Berger HJC, Aerts FHTM, Spaendonck KPMv, Cools AR, Teunisse J (2003) Central coherence and cognitive shifting in relation to social improvement in high-functioning young adults with autism 25:502–511
Bodin D, Pardini DA, Burns TG, Stevens AB (2009) Higher order factor structure of the WISC-IV in a clinical neuropsychological sample. Child Neuropsychol 15(5):417–424. doi:10.1080/09297040802603661
Brackenridge R, McKenzie K, Murray GC, Quigley A (2011) An examination of the effects of stimulant medication on response inhibition: a comparison between children with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Res Dev Disabil 32(6):2797–2804. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.05.027
Casey BJ, Cohen JD, Jezzard P, Turner R, Noll DC, Trainor RJ, Rapoport JL (1995) Activation of prefrontal cortex in children during a nonspatial working memory task with functional MRI. Neuroimage 2(3):221–229. doi:10.1006/nimg.1995.1029
Chatham CH, Herd SA, Brant AM, Hazy TE, Miyake A, O’Reilly R, Friedman NP (2011) From an executive network to executive control: a computational model of the n-back task. J Cogn Neurosci 23(11):3598–3619
Christ SE, Holt DD, White DA, Green L (2007) Inhibitory control in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 37(6):1155–1165
Christ SE, Kester LE, Bodner KE, Miles JH (2011) Evidence for selective inhibitory impairment in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychology 25(6):690–701
Collett BR, Ohan JL, Myers KM (2003) Ten-year review of rating scales. V: Scales assessing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42(9):1015–1037
Constantino JN, Davis SA, Todd RD, Schindler MK, Gross MM, Brophy SL, Reich W (2003) Validation of a brief quantitative measure of autistic traits: comparison of the social responsiveness scale with the autism diagnostic interview-revised. J Autism Dev Disord 33(4):427–433
Cui J, Gao D, Chen Y, Zou X, Wang Y (2010) Working memory in early-school-age children with Asperger’s syndrome. J Autism Dev Disord 40:958–967
De Jonge M, de Bildt A (2007) Nederlandse bewerking van de ADI-R. Hogrefe Uitgevers B.V., Amsterdam
de Vries M, Geurts HM (2012) Cognitive flexibility in ASD; task switching with emotional faces. J Autism Dev Disord 42(12):2558–2568. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1512-1
Diamond A (2012) Activities and programs that improve children’s executive functions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 21(5):335–341. doi:10.1177/0963721412453722
Diamond A (2013) Executive functions. Annu Rev Psychol 64:135–168
Engelhardt PE, Nigg JT, Carr LA, Ferreira F (2008) Cognitive inhibition and working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 117(3):591–605
Fair DA, Bathula D, Nikolas MA, Nigg JT (2012) Distinct neuropsychological subgroups in typically developing youth inform heterogeneity in children with ADHD. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109(17):6769. doi:10.1073/pnas.1115365109
Field A (2009) Discovering statistics using SPSS, 3rd edn. SAGE publications Ltd, London
Friedman NP, Miyake A (2004) The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: a latent-variable analysis. J Exp Psychol Gen 133(1):101–135
Gadow KD, DeVincent CJ, Drabick DAG (2008) Oppositional defiant disorder as a clinical phenotype in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 38(7):1302–1310
Gargaro BA, Rinehart NJ, Bradshaw JL, Tonge BJ, Sheppard DM (2011) Autism and ADHD: how far have we come in the comorbidity debate? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35(5):1081–1088. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.002
Garon N, Bryson SE, Smith IM (2008) Executive function in preschoolers. Psychol Bull 134(1):31–60
Gathercole SE, Pickering SJ, Ambridge B, Wearing H (2004) The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Dev Psychol 40(2):177–190
Geurts HM, Corbett B, Solomon M (2009) The paradox of cognitive flexibility in autism. Trends Cogn Sci 13(2):74–82. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.006
Geurts HM, Luman M, van Meel CS (2008) What’s in a game: the effect of social motivation on interference control in boys with ADHD and autism spectrum disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 49(8):848–857. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01916.x
Geurts HM, van den Bergh SFWM, Ruzzano L (2014) Prepotent response inhibition and interference control in autism spectrum disorders: two meta-analyses. Autism Res doi:10.1002/aur.1369
Geurts HM, Verté S, Oosterlaan J, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA (2004) How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism? J Child Psychol Psychiatry 45(4):836–854. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00276.x
Gilotty L, Kenworthy L, Sirian L, Black DO, Wagner AE (2002) Adaptive skills and executive function in autism spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychol 8(4):241–248
Gomarus HK, Wijers AA, Minderaa RB, Althaus M (2009) ERP correlates of selective attention and working memory capacities in children with ADHD and/or PDD-NOS. Clin Neurophysiol 120(1):60–72
Gray KM, Tonge BJ, Sweeney DJ (2008) Using the autism diagnostic interview-revised and the autism diagnostic observation schedule with young children with developmental delay: evaluating diagnostic validity. J Autism Dev Disord 38(4):657–667. doi:10.1007/s10803-007-0432-y
Happé F, Booth R, Charlton R, Hughes C (2006) Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: examining profiles across domains and ages. Brain Cogn 61(1):25–39. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.03.004
Happé F, Ronald A (2008) The ‘fractionable autism triad’: a review of evidence from behavioural, genetic, cognitive and neural research. Neuropsychol Rev 18(4):287–304. doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9076-8
Hill EL (2004) Executive dysfunction in autism. Trends Cogn Sci 8(1):26–32. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.11.003
Hobson CW, Scott S, Rubia K (2011) Investigation of cool and hot executive function in ODD/CD independently of ADHD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52(10):1035–1043. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02454.x
Holmes J, Gathercole SE, Place M, Dunning DL, Hilton KA, Elliott JG (2010) Working memory deficits can be overcome: impacts of training and medication on working memory in children with ADHD. Appl Cogn Psychol 24(6):827–836. doi:10.1002/acp.1589
Huizinga M, Dolan CV, van der Molen MW (2006) Age-related change in executive function: developmental trends and a latent variable analysis. Neuropsychologia 44(11):2017–2036
Johnson MH (2012) Executive function and developmental disorders: the flip side of the coin. Trends Cogn Sci 16(9):454–457. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2012.07.001
Kane MJ, Conway ARA, Miura TK, Colflesh GJH (2007) Working memory, attention control, and the N-back task: a question of construct validity. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 33(3):615
Kenworthy L, Yerys BE, Anthony LG, Wallace GL (2008) Understanding executive control in autism spectrum disorders in the lab and in the real world. Neuropsychol Rev 18(4):320–338. doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9077-7
Kort W, Schittekatte M, Compaan EL, Bosmans M, Bleichrodt N, Vermeir G, Verhaeghe P (2002) WISC-III NL handleiding nederlandse bewerking. The Psychological Corporation, London
Koshino H, Carpenter PA, Minshew NJ, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Just MA (2005) Functional connectivity in an fMRI working memory task in high-functioning autism. Neuroimage 24(3):810–821. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.09.028
Koshino H, Kana RK, Keller TA, Cherkassky VL, Minshew NJ, Just MA (2008) fMRI investigation of working memory for faces in autism: visual coding and underconnectivity with frontal areas. Cereb Cortex (New York, N.Y.: 1991) 18(2):289
Lauritsen MB (2013) Autism spectrum disorders. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 22:S37–S42. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0359-5
Lecavalier L, Aman MG, Scahill L, Mcdougle CJ, Mccracken JT, Vitiello B, Kau ASM (2006) Validity of the autism diagnostic interview-revised. Am J Mental Retard 111(3):199–215
Lehto JE, Juujärvi P, Kooistra L, Pulkkinen L (2003) Dimensions of executive functioning: evidence from children. Br J Dev Psychol 21(1):59–80
Lejbak L, Crossley M, Vrbancic M (2011) A male advantage for spatial and object but not verbal working memory using the n-back task. Brain Cogn 76(1):191–196. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2010.12.002
Lemon JM, Gargaro B, Enticott PG, Rinehart NJ (2011) Brief report: executive functioning in autism spectrum disorders—a gender comparison of response inhibition. J Autism Dev Disord 41(3):352–356
Leyfer OT, Folstein SE, Bacalman S, Davis NO, Dinh E, Morgan J, Lainhart JE (2006) Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: interview development and rates of disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 36(7):849–861
Lipszyc J, Schachar R (2010) Inhibitory control and psychopathology: a meta-analysis of studies using the stop signal task. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 16(6):1064–1076
Logan GD (1994) In: Carr TH, Dagenbach D (eds) On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a users’ guide to the stop signal paradigm. Academic Press, San Diego
Logan GD, Cowan WB (1984) On the ability to inhibit thought and action: a theory of an act of control. Psychol Rev 91(3):295–327
Logan GD, Schachar RJ, Tannock R (1997) Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychol Sci 8(1):60–64
Lord C, Risi S, Lambrecht L, Cook EH Jr, Leventhal BL, DiLavore PC, Rutter M (2000) The autism diagnostic observation schedule—generic: a standard measure of social and communication deficits associated with the spectrum of autism. J Autism Dev Disord 30(3):205–223
Lord C, Rutter M, Couteur A (1994) Autism diagnostic interview-revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 24(5):659–685
Luna B, Doll SK, Hegedus SJ, Minshew NJ, Sweeney JA (2007) Maturation of executive function in autism. Biol Psychiatry 61(4):474–481. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.02.030
McNab F, Leroux G, Strand F, Thorell L, Bergman S, Klingberg T (2008) Common and unique components of inhibition and working memory: an fMRI, within-subjects investigation. Neuropsychologia 46(11):2668–2682
Minamoto T, Osaka M, Osaka N (2010) Individual differences in working memory capacity and distractor processing: possible contribution of top–down inhibitory control. Brain Res 1335:63–73
Miyake A, Friedman NP (2012) The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 21(1):8–14
Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, Witzki AH, Howerter A, Wager TD (2000) The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn Psychol 41(1):49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Morein-Zamir S, Hommersen P, Johnston C, Kingstone A (2008) Novel measures of response performance and inhibition in children with ADHD. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36(8):1199–1210
Oord S, Geurts HM, Prins PJM, Emmelkamp PMG, Oosterlaan J (2012) Prepotent response inhibition predicts treatment outcome in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child Neuropsychol 18(1):50–61. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.559159
Oosterlaan J, Logan GD, Sergeant JA (1998) Response inhibition in AD/HD, CD, comorbid AD/HD + CD, anxious, and control children: a meta-analysis of studies with the stop task. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 39(3):411–425. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00336
Oosterlaan J, Scheres A, Antrop I, Roeyers H, Sergeant JA (2000) Handleiding bij de vragenlijst voor gedragsproblemen bij kinderen (manual of the rating scale for disruptive behavior disorders in children—DBDRS)
Ozonoff S, Strayer DL (1997) Inhibitory function in nonretarded children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 27(1):59–77
Pelham WE, Gnagy EM, Greenslade KE, Milich R (1992) Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31(2):210–218
Pellicano E (2010a) The development of core cognitive skills in autism: a 3-year prospective study. Child Dev 81(5):1400–1416
Pellicano E (2010b) Individual differences in executive function and central coherence predict developmental changes in theory of mind in autism. Dev Psychol 46(2):530–544. doi:10.1037/A0018287
Pellicano E (2012) The development of executive function in autism. Autism Res Treat
Redick TS, Calvo A, Gay CE, Engle RW (2011) Working memory capacity and go/no-go task performance. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 37(2):308–324
Redick TS, Lindsey DRB (2013) Complex span and n-back measures of working memory: a meta-analysis. Psychon Bull Rev 1–12
Regier DA, Kuhl EA, Kupfer DJ (2013) The DSM-5: classification and criteria changes. World Psychiatry 12(2):92–98. doi:10.1002/wps.20050
Reiersen AM (2011) Links between autism spectrum disorder and ADHD symptom trajectories: important findings and unanswered questions. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50(9):857–859. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.012
Roeyers H, Thys M, Druart C, De Schryver M, Schittekatte M (2011) Screeninglijst voor autismespectrumstoornissen (SRS) handleiding. Hogrefe uitgevers bv, Amsterdam
Russell J (1997) Autism as an executive disorder. Oxford University Press, New York
Russo N, Flanagan T, Iarocci G, Berringer D, Zelazo PD, Burack JA (2007) Deconstructing executive deficits among persons with autism: implications for cognitive neuroscience. Brain Cogn 65(1):77–86. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2006.04.007
Rutter M, Lord C, LeCouteur A (2003) ADI-R autism diagnostic interview—revised manual. Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles
Sanderson C, Allen ML (2013) The specificity of inhibitory impairments in autism and their relation to ADHD-type symptoms. J Autism Dev Disord 43(5):1065–1079. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1650-5
Sattler J (2001) Assessment of children: cognitive applications. Jerome Sattler Publisher Inc, San Diego
Schecklmann M, Ehlis A, Plichta MM, Dresler T, Heine M, Boreatti-Hümmer A, Fallgatter AJ (2012) Working memory and response inhibition as one integral phenotype of adult ADHD? A behavioral and imaging correlational investigation. J Atten Disord 17(6):470–482. doi:10.1177/1087054711429702
Scheres A, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2001) Response execution and inhibition in children with AD/HD and other disruptive disorders: the role of behavioural activation. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42(3):347–357
Schleepen TMJ, Jonkman LM (2010) The development of non-spatial working memory capacity during childhood and adolescence and the role of interference control: an N-back task study. Dev Neuropsychol 35(1):37–56. doi:10.1080/87565640903325733
Schmiedek F, Hildebrandt A, Lovden M, Wilhelm O, Lindenberger U (2009) Complex span versus updating tasks of working memory: the gap is not that deep. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 35(4):1089–1096. doi:10.1037/a0015730
Schoemaker K, Bunte T, Wiebe SA, Espy KA, Dekovi M, Matthys W (2012) Executive function deficits in preschool children with ADHD and DBD. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 53(2):111–119. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02468.x
Severens E, Lommel SV, Ratinckx E, Hartsuiker RJ (2005) Timed picture naming norms for 590 pictures in Dutch. Acta Psychol 119(2):159–187
Shipstead Z, Redick TS, Engle RW (2012) Is working memory training effective? Psychol Bull 138(4):628
Siegel M, Beaulieu A (2012) Psychotropic medications in children with autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review and synthesis for evidence-based practice. J Autism Dev Disord 42(8):1592–1605
Simonoff E, Pickles A, Charman T, Chandler S, Loucas T, Baird G (2008) Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47(8):921–929. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318179964f
Sinzig J, Morsch D, Bruning N, Schmidt MH, Lehmkuhl G (2008) Inhibition, flexibility, working memory and planning in autism spectrum disorders with and without comorbid ADHD-symptoms. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Mental Health 2(1):4. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-2-4
Smith EE, Jonides J (1999) Storage and executive processes in the frontal lobes. Science 283(5408):1657–1661
Storch EA, Arnold EB, Jones AM, Ale CM, Wood JJ, Ehrenreich-May J, Murphy TK (2012) The role of co-occurring disruptive behavior in the clinical presentation of children and adolescents with anxiety in the context of autism spectrum disorders. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 43(5):734–746
Sutera S, Pandey J, Esser EL, Rosenthal MA, Wilson LB, Barton M, Fein D (2007) Predictors of optimal outcome in toddlers diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 37(1):98–107. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0340-6
Taurines R, Schwenck C, Westerwald E, Sachse M, Siniatchkin M, Freitag C (2012) ADHD and autism: differential diagnosis or overlapping traits? A selective review. ADHD Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord 4(3):115–139. doi:10.1007/s12402-012-0086-2
Towgood KJ, Meuwese JDI, Gilbert SJ, Turner MS, Burgess PW (2009) Advantages of the multiple case series approach to the study of cognitive deficits in autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychologia 47(13):2981–2988
Travers BG, Klinger MR, Klinger LG (2011) Attention and working memory in ASD. In: Fein D (ed) The neuropsychology of autism, pp 161–184
van den Wildenberg WPM, van Boxtel GJM, van der Molen MW (2003) The duration of response inhibition in the stop-signal paradigm varies with response force. Acta Psychol 114(2):115–129. doi:10.1016/S0001-6918(03)00062-3
Verte S, Geurts HM, Roeyers H, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2006) Executive functioning in children with an autism spectrum disorder: can we differentiate within the spectrum? J Autism Dev Disord 36(3):351–372
Verté S, Geurts HM, Roeyers H, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2005) Executive functioning in children with autism and tourette syndrome. Dev Psychopathol 17:415–446
Verté S, Geurts HM, Roeyers H, Oosterlaan J, Sergeant JA (2006) The relationship of working memory, inhibition, and response variability in child psychopathology. J Neurosci Methods 151(1):5–14. doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2005.08.023
Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF (2005) Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol Psychiatry 57(11):1336–1346
Willcutt, E. G., Sonuga-Barke, E., Nigg, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2008). Recent developments in neuropsychological models of childhood psychiatric disorders. In T. Banaschewski, & L. A. Rohde (Eds.), (pp. 195-226) Karger Publishers
Williams DL, Goldstein G, Carpenter PA, Minshew NJ (2005) Verbal and spatial working memory in autism. J Autism Dev Disord 35(6):747–756. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0021-x
Williams DL, Goldstein G, Minshew NJ (2006) The profile of memory function in children with autism. Neuropsychology 20(1):21–29. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.1.21
Wong D, Maybery M, Bishop DVM, Maley A, Hallmayer J (2006) Profiles of executive function in parents and siblings of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Genes Brain Behav 5(8):561–576
Zuddas A, Marzocchi GM, Oosterlaan J, Cavolina P, Ancilletta B, Sergeant J (2006) Factor structure and cultural factors of disruptive behaviour disorders symptoms in italian children. Eur Psychiatry 21(6):410–418
Acknowledgments
We want to thank all children, parents, and schools (de Bonte Stegge, and De Beekvliet) for participating in the study; the students (N. Eisenloeffel, P. Gründeman, F. Hopster, M. Huiskens, A. Krepel, L. Menschaert, C. Neuteboom, J. Overbeek, M. Schippers, H. Sonnemans, P. Turel, E. de Vries, L. Voorwald, M. Vos, E. van Vuure) for testing the children; and the mental health care institutions (De Bascule, Bosman GGZ, GGz Ingeest, Kinder- en Jeugdtherapeuticum, Dr. Leo Kannerhuis, and RCKJP) for their help with patient recruitment.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
de Vries, M., Geurts, H.M. Beyond individual differences: are working memory and inhibition informative specifiers within ASD?. J Neural Transm 121, 1183–1198 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-014-1225-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-014-1225-z