Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Reinforcement enhancing effects of nicotine via smoking

  • Original Investigation
  • Published:
Psychopharmacology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Rationale

In animals, nicotine enhances reinforcement from stimuli unrelated to nicotine intake. Human research is suggestive but has not clearly shown a similar influence of nicotine.

Objectives

We assessed acute effects of nicotine via smoking on enhancement of positive (money, music) or negative (termination of noise) reinforcers, or no “reward” (control). These different rewards determined the generalizability of nicotine effects.

Materials and methods

Dependent (n = 25) and nondependent (n = 27) smokers participated in three sessions, each after overnight abstinence. Using a within-subjects design, sessions involved no smoking or smoking denicotinized (0.05 mg) or nicotine (0.6 mg) QuestR brand cigarettes. For comparison, a fourth session involved no abstinence prior to smoking one's own brand to gauge responses under typical nicotine satiation. Reinforcement was assessed by responses on a simple operant computer task for the rewards, each available singly on a progressive ratio schedule during separate trials.

Results

The reinforcing effect of music, but not other rewards, was greater due to the nicotine cigarette, compared to the denicotinized cigarette or no smoking. Reinforcement enhancing effects of nicotine did not differ between dependent and nondependent groups, indicating no influence of withdrawal relief. Responding due to acute nicotine after abstinence was very similar to responding to one's own brand after no abstinence.

Conclusions

Acute nicotine intake per se from smoking after abstinence enhances the reinforcing value of rewards unassociated with smoking, perhaps in a manner comparable to ad lib smoking after no abstinence. Nicotine's reinforcement enhancing effects may be specific to certain rewards, perhaps those sensory in nature.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Addicott MA, Baranger DAA, Kozink RV, Smoski MJ, Dichter GS, McClernon FJ (2012) Smoking withdrawal is associated with increases in brain activation during decision making and reward anticipation: a preliminary study. Psychopharmacology 219:563–573

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual-IV. American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Attwood AS, Penton-Voak IS, Munafo MR (2009) Effects of acute nicotine administration on ratings of attractiveness of facial cues. Nic Tobacco Res 11:44–48

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baker TB, Piper ME, McCarthy DE, Majeskie MR, Fiore MC (2004) Addiction motivation reformulated: an affective processing model of negative reinforcement. Psychol Rev 1:33–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barr RS, Pizzagalli DA, Culhane MA, Goff DC, Evins AE (2008) A single dose of nicotine enhances reward responsiveness in nonsmokers: implications for development of dependence. Biol Psychiatr 63:1061–1065

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau N, Kilbey MM, Andreski P (1994) DSM-IIIR nicotine dependence in young adults: prevalence, correlates, and associated psychiatric disorders. Addiction 89:743–754

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Caggiula AR, Donny EC, Palmatier M, Liu X, Chaudhri N, Sved A (2009) The role of nicotine in smoking: a dual-reinforcement model. In: Bevins RA, Caggiula AR (eds) The motivational impact of nicotine and its role in tobacco use, Nebraska symposium on motivation, vol 55. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp 91–109

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Caggiula AR, Donny EC, White AR, Chaudhri N, Booth S, Gharib MA, Hoffman A, Perkins KA, Sved AF (2001) Cue dependency of nicotine self-administration and smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 70:515–530

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaudhri N, Caggiula AR, Donny EC, Palmatier MI, Liu X, Sved AF (2006) Complex interactions between nicotine and nonpharmacological stimuli reveal multiple roles for nicotine in reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 184:353–366

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen J (1988) Statistical power analysis for the social sciences, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawkins L, Acaster S, Powell JH (2007) The effects of smoking and abstinence on experience of happiness and sadness in response to positively valenced, negatively valenced, and neutral film clips. Addict Behav 32:425–431

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawkins L, Powell JH, West R, Powell J, Pickering A (2006) A double-blind placebo controlled experimental study of nicotine: I—effects on incentive motivation. Psychopharmacology 189:355–367

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein LH, Bulik CM, Perkins KA, Caggiula AC, Rodefer J (1991) Behavioral economic analysis of smoking: money and food as alternatives. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 38:715–721

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans DE, Drobes DJ (2009) Nicotine self-medication of cognitive-attentional processing. Addict Biol 14:32–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler H (1971) Implications of sensory reinforcement. In: Glaser R (ed) The nature of reinforcement. Academic Press, New York, pp 151–195

    Google Scholar 

  • Guy EG, Fletcher PJ (2013) Nicotine-induced enhancement of responding for conditioned reinforcement in rats: role of prior nicotine exposure and α4β2 nicotinic receptors. Psychopharmacology 225:429–440

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey DM, Yasar S, Heishman SJ, Panlilio LV, Henningfield JE, Goldberg SR (2004) Nicotine serves as an effective reinforcer of intravenous drug-taking behavior in human cigarette smokers. Psychopharmacology 175:134–142

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hatsukami DK, Morgan SR, Pickens RW, Champagne SE (1990) Situational factors in cigarette smoking. Addict Behav 15:1–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fagerstrom K-O (1991) The fagerstrom test for nicotine dependence: a revision of the fagerstrom tolerance questionnaire. Br J Addiction 86:1119–1127

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Honig WK, Staddon JER (1977) Handbook of operant behavior. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes JR, Hatsukami DK (2007) Instructions for use of the Minnesota Withdrawal Scale-Revised. Retrieved from www.uvm.edu/∼hbpl

  • Huitema B (1980) Analysis of covariance and alternatives. John Wiley & Sons, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny PJ, Markou A (2006) Nicotine self-administration acutely activates brain reward systems and induces a long-lasting increase in reward sensitivity. Neuropsychopharmacol 31:1203–1211

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Klinkenberg I, Blokland A, Riedel AJ, Sambeth A (2013) Cholinergic modulation of auditory processing, sensory gating and novelty detection in human participants. Psychopharmacology 225:903–921

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee EM, Malson JL, Waters AJ, Moolchan ET, Pickworth WB (2003) Smoking topography: reliability and validity in dependent smokers. Nic Tobacco Res 5:673–679

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeFoll B, Goldberg SR (2006) Nicotine as a typical drug of abuse in experimental animals and humans. Psychopharmacology 184:367–381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DR, Kausch MA, Gancarz AM, Beyley LJ, Richards JB (2012) Effects of novelty and methamphetamine on conditioned and sensory reinforcement. Behav Brain Res 234:312–322

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGrath DS, Barrett SP, Stewart SH, Schmid EA (2012) The effects of acute doses of nicotine on video lottery terminal gambling in daily smokers. Psychopharmacology 220:155–161

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Norman WD, Jongerius JL (1985) Apple picker: computer software for studying human responding on concurrent and multiple schedules. Behav Res Meth Instr Comput 17:222–225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Dell LE, Khroyan TV (2009) Rodent models of nicotine reward: what do they tell us about tobacco abuse in humans? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 91:481–488

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olausson P, Jentsch JD, Taylor JR (2004) Nicotine enhances responding with conditioned reinforcement. Psychopharmacology 171:173–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palmatier MI, O’Brien LC, Hall MJ (2012) The role of conditioning history and reinforcer strength in the reinforcement enhancing effects of nicotine in rats. Psychopharmacology 219:1119–1131

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paterson NE (2009) The neuropharmacological substrates of nicotine reward: reinforcing versus reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine. Behav Pharmacol 20:211–225

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins KA, Epstein LH, Grobe JE, Fonte C (1994) Tobacco abstinence, smoking cues, and the reinforcing value of smoking. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 47:107–112

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins KA, Grobe JE, Fonte C (1997) The influence of acute smoking exposure on the subsequent reinforcing value of smoking. Exper Clin Psychopharmacol 5:277–285

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins KA, Grottenthaler A, Wilson AS (2009) Lack of reinforcement-enhancing effects of nicotine in non-dependent smokers. Psychopharmacology 205:635–645

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins KA, Karelitz JL, Conklin CA, Sayette MA, Giedgowd GE (2010) Acute negative affect relief from smoking depends on the affect measure and situation, but not on nicotine. Biol Psychiatry 67:707–714

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins KA, Karelitz JL, Giedgowd GE, Conklin CA (2012) The reliability of puff topography and subjective responses during ad lib smoking of a single cigarette. Nic Tobacco Res 14:490–494

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins KA, Karelitz JL, Jao NC, Stratton E (2013). Possible reinforcement enhancing effects of bupropion during initial smoking abstinence. Nic Tobacco Res, in press. Online access. doi:10.1093/ntr/nts224.

  • Powell J, Dawkins L, Davis RE (2002) Smoking, reward responsiveness, and response inhibition: tests of an incentive motivational model. Biol Psychiatry 51:151–163

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raiff BR, Dallery J (2008) The generality of nicotine as a reinforcer enhancer in rats: effects on responding maintained by primary and conditioned reinforcers and resistance to extinction. Psychopharmacology 201:305–314

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Raiff BR, Jarvis BP, Rapoza D (2012) Prevalence of video game use, cigarette smoking, and acceptability of a video-game based smoking cessation intervention among online adults. Nic Tobacco Res 14:63–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Rose JE, Salley A, Behm FM, Bates JE, Westman EC (2010) Reinforcing effects of nicotine and non-nicotine components of cigarette smoke. Psychopharmacology 210:1–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salamone JD (2006) Will the last person who uses the term “reward” please turn out the lights? Comments on processes related to reinforcement, learning, motivation, and effort. Addiction Biol 11:43–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shadel WG, Martino SC, Setodji C, Cervone D, Witkiewitz K, Beckjord EG, Scharf D, Shih R (2011) Lapse-induced surges in craving influence relapse in adult smokers: an experimental investigation. Health Psychol 30:588–596

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheppard AB, Gross SC, Pavelka SA, Hall MJ, Palmatier MI (2012) Caffeine increases the motivation to obtain nondrug reinforcers in rats. Drug Alc Depend 124:216–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shiffman S (1989) Tobacco “chippers”—individual differences in tobacco dependence. Psychopharmacology 97:539–547

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snuggs S, Hajek P (2013) Responsiveness to reward following cessation of smoking. Psychopharmacology 225:869–873

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • SRNT subcommittee, (2002) Biochemical verification of tobacco use and cessation. Nic Tobacco Res 4:149–159

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Van Gucht D, Van den Bergh O, Beckers T, Vansteenwagen D (2010) Smoking behavior in context: where and when do people smoke? J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 41:172–177

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Voorhees EE, Mitchell JT, McClernon FJ, Beckham JC, Kollins SH (2012) Sex, ADHD, and smoking outcomes: an integrative model. Med Hypoth 78:585–593

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wise R (1998) Drug-activation of brain reward pathways. Drug Alcohol Depend 51:13–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This research was supported by NIH Grant DA31218 (KAP). Neither author has any potential conflicts of interest to report.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 3811 O’Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA

    Kenneth A. Perkins & Joshua L. Karelitz

Authors
  1. Kenneth A. Perkins
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joshua L. Karelitz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kenneth A. Perkins.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Perkins, K.A., Karelitz, J.L. Reinforcement enhancing effects of nicotine via smoking. Psychopharmacology 228, 479–486 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3054-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-013-3054-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation