Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Prosocial Behavior as a Protective Factor for Children’s Peer Victimization

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A majority of peer victimization research focuses on its associations with negative outcomes, yet efforts to understand possible protective factors that may mitigate these negative outcomes also require attention. The present study was an investigation of the potential moderating effect of prosocial behaviors on loneliness for youth who are peer victimized. Participants were fourth and fifth grade students (511 total; 49 % boys) who were primarily European American (43.4 %) and Hispanic (48.2 %). Structural Equation Modeling was used to test the interaction of prosocial behavior and peer victimization (relational and overt forms) on loneliness 1 year later. The results indicated that prosocial behavior significantly moderated the relationship between peer victimization (for the relational form only) and loneliness while controlling for levels of perceived peer support. A multi-group comparison by gender further indicated the moderation was significant for boys only. Potential implications for intervention/prevention efforts focused on developing children’s prosocial skills as a possible protective factor for relationally victimized youth are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incomplete data. In G. A. Marcoulides & R. E. Schumacker (Eds.), Advanced structural equation modeling: Issues and techniques. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Asher, S. R., & Paquette, J. A. (2003). Loneliness and peer relations in childhood. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 12(3), 75–78. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.01233.

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, K. S. (2007). Update on bullying at school: Science forgotten? Developmental Review, 27, 90–126. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2006.08.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K. M., & Kaukiainen, A. (1992). Do girls manipulate and boys fight? Developmental trends in regard to direct and indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 18(2), 117–127. doi:10.1002/1098-2337(1992)18:2<117::AID-AB2480180205>3.0.CO;2-3.

  • Blackhart, G. C., Baumeister, R. F., & Twenge, J. M. (2006). Rejection’s impact on self-defeating, prosocial, antisocial, and self-regulatory behaviors. In K. D. Vohs & E. J. Finkel (Eds.), Self and relationships: Connecting intrapersonal and interpersonal processes (pp. 237–253). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M. J., & Smith, P. K. (1994). Bully/victim problems in middle school children: Stability, self-perceived competence, peer-perceptions and peer acceptance. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12, 315–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boulton, M. J., Trueman, M., & Murray, L. (2008). Associations between peer victimization, fear of future victimization and disrupted concentration on class work among junior school pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(3), 473–489. doi:10.1348/000709908X320471.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buhs, E., Ladd, G., & Herald, S. (2006). Peer exclusion and victimization: Processes that mediate the relation between peer group rejection and children’s classroom engagement and achievement? Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 1–13. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buhs, E. S., McGinley, M., & Toland, M. D. (2010). Overt and relational victimization in Latinos and European Americans: Measurement equivalence across ethnicity, gender, and grade level in early adolescent groups. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(1), 171–197. doi:10.1177/0272431609350923.

    Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A metaanalytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, G., & Randall, B. A. (2001). Are all prosocial behaviors equal? A socioecological developmental conception of prosocial behavior. In F. Columbus (Ed.), Advances in psychology research (Vol. III, pp. 151–170). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cassidy, J., & Asher, S. R. (1992). Loneliness and peer relations in young children. Child Development, 63(2), 350–365. doi:10.2307/1131484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cillessen, A. N. (2006). Peer rejection: Bridging theory and application. Human Development, 49(1), 44–53. doi:10.1159/000090304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J., Terry, R., Lenox, K., Lochman, J., & Hyman, C. (1995). Childhood peer rejection and aggression as predictors of stable patterns of adolescent disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 697–713. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006799.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, S., Archer, J., & Eslea, M. (2006). “We’re not friends anymore! Unless…”: The frequency of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 294–307. doi:10.1002/ab.20126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Bigbee, M. A. (1998). Relational and overt forms of peer victimization: A multiinformant approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 6, 337–347. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66(3), 710–722. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00900.x.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1996). Children’s treatment by peers: Victims of relational and overt aggression. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 367–380. doi:10.1017/S0954579400007148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Nelson, D. A. (2002). Relational and physical victimization within friendships: Nobody told me there'd be friends like these. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30(6), 599–607. doi:10.1023/A:1020811714064.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, L. M., & Demaray, M. (2007). Social support as a moderator between victimization and internalizing–externalizing distress from bullying. School Psychology Review, 36(3), 383–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Degirmencioglu, S. M., Urberg, K. A., Tolson, J. M., & Richard, P. (1998). Adolescent friendship networks: Continuity and change over the school year. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 44(3), 313–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Guzman, M. T., Carlo, G., & Edwards, C. (2008). Prosocial behaviors in context: Examining the role of children's social companions. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32(6), 522–530. doi:10.1177/0165025408095557.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1998). Prosocial development. In W. Damon (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (Vol. 3, pp. 701–778). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial development. In N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Series Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (Vol. 3, pp. 646–718). New York: Wiley.

  • Espelage, D. L., Bosworth, K., & Simon, T. R. (2001). Short-term stability and prospective correlates of bullying in middle-school students: An examination of potential demographic, psychosocial, and environmental influences. Violence and Victims, 16(4), 411–426.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frydenberg, E., & Lewis, R. (1993). Adolescent Coping Scale. Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.

  • Greener, S., & Crick, N. R. (1999). Normative beliefs about prosocial behavior in middle childhood: What does it mean to be nice? Social Development, 8(3), 349–363.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanish, L. D., & Guerra, N. G. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of patterns of adjustment following peer victimization. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 69–89. doi:10.1017/S0954579402001049.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, L., & Gullone, E. (2006). The clinical significance of loneliness: A literature review. Clinical Psychology Review, 26(6), 695–718. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.04.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hodges, E. V., Boivin, M., Vitaro, F., & Bukowski, W. M. (1999). The power of friendship: Protection against an escalating cycle of peer victimization. Developmental Psychology, 35, 94–101. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.35.1.94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holt, M. K., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Perceived social support among bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(8), 984–994. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9153-3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoover, J. H., Oliver, R. L., & Hazler, R. J. (1992). Bullying: Perceptions of adolescent victims in the Midwestern U.S.A. School Psychology International, 13, 5–16. doi:10.1177/0143034392131001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hymel, S., Wagner, E., & Butler, L. J. (1990). Reputational bias: View from the peer group. In S. R. Asher & J. D. Coie (Eds.), Peer rejection in childhood (pp. 156–186). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kochenderfer, B. J., & Ladd, G. W. (1997). Victimized children’s responses to peers’ aggression: Behaviors associated with reduced versus continued victimization. Development and Psychopathology, 9(1), 59–73. doi:10.1017/S0954579497001065.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., & Ladd, G. (2001). Variations in peer victimization: Relations to children’s maladjustment. In J. Juvonen & S. Graham (Eds.), Peer harassment in school: The plight of the vulnerable and victimized (pp. 25–48). New York: The Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., & Wardrop, J. L. (2001). Chronicity and instability of children’s peer victimization experiences as predictors of loneliness and social satisfaction trajectories. Child Development, 72(1), 134–151. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00270.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., Kochenderfer, B. J., & Coleman, C. C. (1996). Friendship quality as a predictor of young children’s early school adjustment. Child Development, 67, 1103–1118. doi:10.2307/1131882.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., & Kochenderfer-Ladd, B. (2002). Identifying victims of peer aggression from early to middle childhood: Analysis of cross-informant data for concordance, estimation of relational adjustment, prevalence of victimization, and characteristics of identified victims. Psychological Assessment, 14(1), 74–96. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.14.1.74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • La Greca, A. M., & Harrison, H. (2005). Adolescent Peer Relations, Friendships, and Romantic Relationships: Do They Predict Social Anxiety and Depression? Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34(1), 49–61. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laible, D. J., & Carlo, G. (2004). The differential relations of maternal and paternal support and control to adolescent social competence, self-worth, and sympathy. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 759–782. doi:10.1177/0743558403260094.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maccoby, E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45, 513–520. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.45.4.513.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, K. M., & Huebner, E. S. (2007). Peer victimization and prosocial experiences and emotional well-being of middle school students. Psychology in the Schools, 44, 199–208. doi:10.1002/pits.20216.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S., & Wright, M. (2010). Resilience over the lifespan: Developmental perspectives on resistance, recovery, and transformation. In J. W. Reich, A. J. Zautra & J. Hall (Eds.), Handbook of adult resilience (pp. 213–237). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

  • Mercer, S. H., McMillen, J., & DeRosier, M. E. (2009). Predicting change in children’s aggression and victimization using classroom-level descriptive norms of aggression and pro-social behavior. Journal of School Psychology, 47(4), 267–289. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2009.04.001.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L.K. & Muthén, B.O. (2013). Mplus. Los Angeles: Muthén and Muthén.

  • Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Willinslon, VT: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M. (2010). Prospective associations between peer victimization and aggression. Child Development, 81, 1670–1677.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrov, J. M., & Keating, C. F. (2004). Gender differences in preschool aggression during free play and structured interactions: An observational study. Social Development, 13, 255–277. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.000266.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paquette, J. A., & Underwood, M. K. (1999). Gender differences in young adolescents' experiences of peer victimization: Social and physical aggression. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 45(2), 242–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, J. J., & Cillessen, A. N. (2003). Dynamics of peer victimization in early adolescence: Results from a four-year longitudinal study. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 19(2), 25–43. doi:10.1300/J008v19n02_03.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prinstein, M. J., Boergers, J., & Vernberg, E. M. (2001). Overt and relational aggression in adolescents: Social-psychological adjustment of aggressors and victims. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 479–491. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3004_05.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Putallaz, M., Grimes, C. L., Foster, K. J., Kupersmidt, J., & Coie, J. D. (2007). Overt and relational aggression and victimization: Multiple perspectives within the school setting. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 459–586. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2007.05.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reijntjes, A., Thomaes, S., Bushman, B. J., Boelen, P. A., Orobio de Castro, B., & Telch, M. J. (2010). The outcast lash-out effect in youth: Alienation increases aggression following peer rejection. Psychological Science, 21, 1394–1398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roecker Phelps, C. E. (2001). Children’s responses to overt and relational aggression. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 240–252.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98–131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98.

  • Rubin, K. H., Wojslawowicz, J. C., Rose-Krasnor, L., Booth-LaForce, C., & Burgess, K. B. (2006). The Best Friendships of Shy/Withdrawn Children: Prevalence, Stability, and Relationship Quality. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(2), 143–157. doi:10.1007/s10802-005-9017-4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., Kärnä, A., & Poskiparta, E. (2010). From peer putdowns to peer support: A theoretical model and how it translated into a national anti-bullying program. In S. R. Jimerson, S. M. Swearer, & D. L. Espelage (Eds.), Handbook of bullying in schools: An international perspective (pp. 441–454). New York, NY: Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, D., Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1993). The emergence of chronic peer vicitimization in boys’ play groups. Child Development, 64(6), 1755–1772. doi:10.2307/1131467.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snijders, T. A. B., & Bosker, R. J. (2012). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinberg, L. D. (2013). Adolescence. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., & Brassard, M. R. (2003). The relationship of peer victimization to social anxiety and loneliness in adolescence. Child Study Journal, 33, 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., Brassard, M. R., & Masia-Warner, C. L. (2003). The relationship of peer victimization to social anxiety and loneliness in adolescent females. Child Study Journal, 33, 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., & Masia, C. L. (2001). Peer victimization and social anxiety and distress in adolescence. Peer relationships, social anxiety, and developmental psychopathology. Symposium presented at the Association for the Advancement of Behavioural Therapy, Philadelphia, PA, November.

  • Sullivan, T. N., Farrell, A. D., & Kliewer, W. (2006). Peer victimization in early adolescence: Association between physical and relational victimization and drug use, aggression, and delinquent behaviors among urban middle school students. Development and Psychopathology, 18(1), 119–137. doi:10.1017/S095457940606007X.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Terranova, A., Harris, J., Kavetski, M., & Oates, R. (2011). Responding to peer victimization: A sense of control matters. Child & Youth Care Forum, 40(6), 419–434. doi:10.1007/s10566-011-9144-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J. M., Catanese, K. R., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(3), 606–615. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaro, F., Gagnon, C., & Tremblay, R. E. (1990). Predicting stable peer rejection from kindergarten to grade one. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 257–264.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waasdorp, T., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2011). Examining student responses to frequent bullying: A latent class approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(2), 336–352. doi:10.1037/a0022747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, J., Iannotti, R. J., & Luk, J. W. (2011). Peer victimization and academic adjustment among early adolescents: Moderation by gender and mediation by perceived classmate support. Journal of School Health, 81(7), 386–392. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2011.00606.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R. S. (1987). Reflections on the present state of loneliness research. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2(2), 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodhouse, S. S., Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2012). Loneliness and peer relations in adolescence. Social Development, 21(2), 273–293. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2011.00611.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wothke, W. (2000). Longitudinal and multigroup modeling with missing data. In T. D. Little, K. U. Schnabel, & J. Baumert (Eds.), Modeling longitudinal and multilevel data: Practical issues, applied approaches, and specific examples (pp. 219–240, 269–281). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

  • Yeung, R., & Leadbeater, B. (2010). Adults make a difference: the protective effects of parent and teacher emotional support on emotional and behavioral problems of peer-victimized adolescents. Journal of Community Psychology, 38(1), 80–98. doi:10.1002/jcop.20353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Geiger, T. C., & Crick, N. R. (2005). Relational and physical aggression, prosocial behavior, and peer relations: Gender moderation and bidirectional associations. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 421–452. doi:10.1177/0272431605279841.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the school districts and students who participated in this study.

Author contributions

Both authors made significant contributions to this study and manuscript. The manuscript is based off the thesis work of EG, who drafted the manuscript and performed the statistical analyses. EB was responsible for all aspects of the larger data collection and assisted in drafting and editing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Center for Health Outcomes and Prevention Research, Sanford Research, 2301 East 60th Street North, Sioux Falls, SD, USA

    Emily R. Griese

  2. Department of Educational Psychology, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, 114 Teachers College Hall, Lincoln, NE, 68588-0345, USA

    Eric S. Buhs

Authors
  1. Emily R. Griese
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eric S. Buhs
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Emily R. Griese.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Griese, E.R., Buhs, E.S. Prosocial Behavior as a Protective Factor for Children’s Peer Victimization. J Youth Adolescence 43, 1052–1065 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0046-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0046-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation