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Maternal and Paternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Maladjustment: The Mediating Role of Parental Behavior

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Abstract

This study examined parental behaviors as mediators in links between depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers and child adjustment problems. Participants were 4,184 parents and 6,048 10- to 15-year-olds enrolled in the 1998 and 2000 cycles of the Canadian National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth. Mothers and fathers self-reported symptoms of depression at Times 1 and 2 and their children assessed parental nurturance, rejection, and monitoring and self-reported internalizing and externalizing problems and prosocial behavior at Time 2. Hierarchical linear modeling showed evidence of mediation involving all three domains of parental behavior. Findings supported the hypothesis that the quality of the child’s rearing environment is one mechanism that carries risk to children of depressed parents. Interventions for parents whose symptoms of depression interfere with parenting responsibilities could help reduce the risk of some childhood disorders.

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Notes

  1. Figures include parents who reported more than one ethnic origin, which is why the percentages add to more than 100%. Aboriginal children were underrepresented because the NLSCY did not survey children living on reserves and in the Yukon and Northwest Territories.

  2. Income adequacy scores were: 1 (less than $10,000 for 1–4 persons or less than $15,000 for five or more persons); 2 ($10,000 to $14,999 for one or two persons, $10,000 to $19,999 for three or four persons, or $15,000 to $29,999 for five or more persons); 3 ($15,000 to $29,999 for one or two persons, $20,000 to $39,999 for three or four persons, or $30,000 to $59,999 for five or more persons); 4 ($30,000 to $59,999 for one or two persons, $40,000 to $79,999 for three or four persons, or $60,000 to $79,999 for five or more persons); and 5 (more than $60,000 for one or two persons or more than $80,000 for three or more persons).

  3. Although data on hyperactivity symptoms were also available and tend to correlate highly with aggressive conduct problems in children (Waschbusch 2002), these data were excluded from this study because the behaviors were measured using self-reports. Past research supports the reliability and validity of children’s self-reports of aggressive conduct problems but has found limited value in children’s self-reports of hyperactivity (Jensen et al. 1999; Loeber et al. 1989).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

    Frank J. Elgar

  2. Department of Family Social Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

    Rosemary S. L. Mills & Douglas A. Brownridge

  3. Departments of Psychology, Pediatrics and Psychiatry, Dalhousie University and IWK Health Centre, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

    Patrick J. McGrath

  4. Center for Children and Families and Department of Pediatrics, University at Buffalo–SUNY, Buffalo, NY, USA

    Daniel A. Waschbusch

  5. Department of Psychology, B550 Loeb Building, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada

    Frank J. Elgar

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  1. Frank J. Elgar
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  2. Rosemary S. L. Mills
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  3. Patrick J. McGrath
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  4. Daniel A. Waschbusch
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Correspondence to Frank J. Elgar.

Appendix

Appendix

Below are survey items that were used in the NLSCY to measure parental depressive symptoms and child-rated parental behavior and adjustment problems.Items measuring parental depressive symptoms in the CES-D-12 were: I did not feel like eating or my appetite was poor; I felt that I could not shake off the blues even with help from my family or friends; I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing; I felt depressed; I felt that everything I did was an effort; I felt hopeful about the future; My sleep was restless; I was happy; I felt lonely; I enjoyed life; I had crying spells; I felt that people disliked me.

Items measuring parental nurturance were: My parents smile at me; My parents praise me; My parents make sure I know I am appreciated; My parents listen to my ideas and opinions; My parents and I solve a problem together whenever we disagree about something; My parents speak of the good things I do; My parents seem proud of the things I do. Items measuring parental rejection were: My parents soon forget a rule they have made; My parents nag me about little things; My parents only keep rules when it suits them; My parents threaten punishment more often than they use it; My parents enforce a rule or do not enforce a rule depending upon their mood; My parents hit me or threaten to do so; My parents get angry and yell at me. Items measuring parental monitoring were: My parents want to know exactly where I am and what I am doing; My parents tell me what time to be home when I go out; My parents find out about my misbehaviour; My parents let me go out any evening I want; My parents take an interest in where I am going and who I am with.

Items measuring internalizing problems were: I am unhappy or sad; I am not as happy as other children; I am too fearful or nervous; I worry a lot; I cry a lot; I am nervous, high strung or tense; I have trouble enjoying myself. Items measuring externalizing problems were: I get into many fights; When another kid accidentally hurts me, I assume that the other kid meant to do it and I respond with anger and fighting; I physically attack people; I threaten people; I bully or am mean to others; I kick or hit other people my age; When I am mad at someone, I try to get others to dislike him/her; When I am mad at someone, I become friends with another as revenge; When I am mad at someone, I say bad things behind the his/her back; When I am mad at someone, I say to others “let’s not be friends with him/her;” When I am mad at someone, I tell that person’s secrets to a third person; I destroy my own things; I steal at home; I destroy things belonging to my family or other young people; I tell lies or cheat; I vandalize; I steal outside my home. Items measuring prosocial behavior were: I show sympathy for a child who has made a mistake; I try to help someone who has been hurt; I offer to help clear up a mess someone else has made; If there is an argument, I try to stop it; I offer to help other young people who are having difficulty with a task; I comfort another young person (friend, brother, or sister) who is crying or upset; I help to pick up things that another young person has dropped; When I am playing with others, I invite bystanders to join in a game; I help other people my age (friends, brother, or sister) who are feeling sick; I encourage other people my age who cannot do things as well as I can.

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Elgar, F.J., Mills, R.S.L., McGrath, P.J. et al. Maternal and Paternal Depressive Symptoms and Child Maladjustment: The Mediating Role of Parental Behavior. J Abnorm Child Psychol 35, 943–955 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9145-0

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