Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

De (in)effectiviteit van psychofarmaca

  • Published:
Dth

Samenvatting

Met nadruk op methodologische problemen wordt de effectiviteit besproken van a antipsychotica bij schizofrene psychosen, b antidepressiva bij unipolaire depressies en c anxiolytica, antidepressiva en antipsychotica bij angststoornissen. Achtereenvolgens komen aan de orde: de korte-termijneffectiviteit van acute behandelingen in vergelijking met die van een placebo; de effectiviteit op langere termijn, wanneer de behandeling voortgezet of gestaakt wordt; vergelijkingen met de effectiviteit van cognitieve gedragstherapieën (CGT). De strekking luidt als volgt: ad a Het nut bij acute behandelingen kan nauwelijks betwijfeld worden. De waarde van jarenlang gebruik is moeilijker te taxeren. De effectiviteit is afhankelijk van psychosociale karakteristieken van de omgeving van de patiënt. Over de algemene en blijvende effectiviteit van CGT valt nog niets te zeggen. Ad b en c Het gemiddelde verschil in effectiviteit tussen medicijnen en placebo bij acute behandelingen is klein; uitgedrukt in effectgroottes kleiner dan 0,5 bij depressies, gegeneraliseerde angststoornissen en paniekstoornissen, en misschien iets groter bij dwangstoornissen en sociale fobieën; met enkele amenderingen lijken, waar onderzocht, benzodiazepinen, antidepressiva en antipsychotica even effectief bij angststoornissen. Gezien de nadelen van de alternatieven, is een SSRI altijd een goede eerste keuze, ongeacht de diagnose. De waarde van zeer langdurige medicamenteuze behandelingen is onduidelijk. De gemiddelde effectiviteit van CGT is minstens zo groot als van medicatie en de verbeteringen beklijven minstens zo goed. Bij een ‘modale’ patiënt met een depressie of angststoornis valt er vooralsnog veel voor te zeggen medicatie als een optie van tweede keuze te beschouwen, mede gezien de bijwerkingen die een enkele keer zeer ernstig kunnen zijn. Meer onderzoek naar de mogelijke meerwaarde van een combinatie van psychologische en medicamenteuze behandelingen is geboden.

Abstract

Emphasizing methodological problems in its assessment, effectiveness is reviewed of a antipsychotics in schizophrenic psychosis, b antidepressants in unipolar depression, and c anxiolytics, antidepressants and antipsychotics in anxiety disorders. Discussed are: drug-placebo differences in acute treatment, long-term effectiveness when treatment is continued or discontinued, and comparisons with cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). The purport is as follows. As to a, usefulness in acute treatment can hardly be doubted. The benefit of continuing treatment for years is more difficult to assess. Effectiveness is dependent on psychosocial characteristics of the patient's environment. As yet nothing can be said on the general and lasting effectiveness of CBT. As to b and c, in acute treatment, mean drug-placebo differences in effectiveness are small; expressed in effect sizes smaller than 0.5 in depression, generalized anxiety disorder and panic disorder, and perhaps somewhat larger in obsessive-compulsive disorder and social phobia; as far as investigated, benzodiazepines, antidepressants and antipsychotics seem to be, with some amendments, equally effective in anxiety disorders. In view of the disadvantages of the alternatives, an SSRI is always a good pick, irrespective of the diagnosis. The benefit of very prolonged drug treatments is unclear. Mean effectiveness of CBT is at least as great as that of medication, and improvements take root at least as well. For a ‘modal’ patient with a depression or anxiety disorder, there is a case for considering the use of medication as an option of second choice, also in view of the side-effects which occasionally can be very serious. More research is needed into possibilities of an extra benefit of combinations of psychological and drug treatments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Referenties

  • Alford, B.A., & Correia, C.J. (1986). Behavior Therapy, 25, 17-33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, I.M., & Tomenson, B.M. (1995). Treatment discontinuation with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors compared with tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis. British Medical Journal, 310, 1433-1438.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Angst, J., Stassen, H.H., & Woggon, B. (1989). Effects of neuroleptics on positive and negative symptoms and the deficit state. Psychopharmacology, 99, S41-S46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous (1980). A double blind comparison of ketazolam given once each day with diazepam given in divided doses and placebo in the treatment of anxiety. British Journal of Clinical Practice, 34, 107-115.

  • Ashton, H. (1984). Benzodiazepine withdrawal: an unfinished story. British Medical Journal, 288, 1135-1140.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, H. (1987). Benzodiazepine withdrawal: outcome in 50 patients. British Journal of Addiction, 82, 665-671.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, H. (1994). Guidelines for the rational use of benzodiazepines. Drugs, 48, 25-40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, H. (1995). Protracted withdrawal from benzodiazepines: the post-withdrawal syndrome. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 174-179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Awad, A.G., & Hogan, T.P. (1994). Subjective response to neuroleptics and the quality of life: implications for treatment outcome. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89 (suppl. 380), 27-32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baer, L. (1993). Behavior therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder in the office-based practice. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54, suppl.6, 10-15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bakish, D., Hooper, C.L., Filteau, M.-J., et al. (1996). A double-blind placebo-controlled trial comparing fluvoxamine and imipramine in the treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 32, 135-141.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldessarini, R.J. (1995). Risks and implications of interrupting maintenance psychotropic drug therapy. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 63, 137-141.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldessarini, R.J., & Cole, J.O. (1988). Chemotherapy. In A.M. Nicholi (Ed.), The new Harvard Guide to Psychiatry (pp. 481-533). Cambridge MA: The Belknap Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baldessarini, R.J., & Viguera, A.C. (1995). Neuroleptic withdrawal in schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 189-192.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldessarini, R.J., Cohen, B.M., & Teicher, M.H. (1988). Significance of neuroleptic dose and plasma level in the pharmacological treatment of psychoses. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 79-91.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baldessarini, R.J., Tondo, L., Faedda, G.L., et al. (1996). Effects of the rate of discontinuing lithium maintenance treatment in bipolar disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57, 441-448.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balkom, A.J.L.M. van & Oppen, P. van (1996). Diagnostiek en behandeling van obsessieve compulsieve stoornis. Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie, 38, 3-15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balkom, A.J.L.M. van, Oppen, P. van, Vermeulen, A.W.A., & Dyck, R. van (1994). A meta-analysis on the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a comparison of antidepressants, behavior, and cognitive therapy. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 359-381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balkom, A.J.L.M. van, Nauta, M.C.E., & Bakker, A. (1995). Meta-analysis on the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia: review and re-examination. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 2, 1-14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balkom, A.J.L.M. van, Beurs, E. de, Koele, P., Lange, A., & Dyck, R. van (1996). Long-term benzodiazepine use is associated with smaller treatment gain in panic disorder with agoraphobia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 133-134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ballenger, J.C., Burrows, G.D., Dupont, R.L., et al. (1989). Alprazolam in panic disorder and agoraphobia. I. Efficacy in short-term treatment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 413-422. Commentaar, 1989, 46, 668-672.

    Google Scholar 

  • Balon, R. (1989). Biological predictors of antidepressant treatment outcome. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 12, 195-214.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Basoglu, M., Marks, I.M., Kilic, C., et al. (1994). Alprazolam and exposure for panic disorder with agoraphobia: attribution of improvement to medication predicts subsequent relapse. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 652-659.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bebbington, P., & Kuipers, L. (1994). The predictive utility of expressed emotion in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 24, 707-718.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bentall, R.P., Haddock, G., & Slade, P.D. (1994). Cognitive behavior therapy for persistent auditory hallucinations. Behavior Therapy, 25, 51-66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berlin, C.S. (1996). Fluoxetine withdrawal symptoms [letter]. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57, 93-94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beurs, E. de, Balkom, A.J.L.M. van, Lange, A., et al. (1995). Treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia: comparison of fluvoxamine, placebo and psychological management combined with exposure and of exposure in vivo alone. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 683-691.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birkenhäger, T.K., Nolen, W.A., & Moleman, P. (1992). Antidepressiva. In P. Moleman, Praktische psychofarmacologie (tweede, herziene druk; pp. 49-123). Houten/Zaventem: Bohn Stafleu Van Loghum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Birkenhäger, T.K., Moleman, P., & Nolen, W.A. (1995). Benzodiazepines for depression? A review of the literature. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 181-195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Black, D.W., Winokur, G., & Nasrallah, A. (1987). The treatment of depression: electroconvulsive therapy v. antidepressants: a naturalistic evaluation of 1,495 patients. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 28, 169-182.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Black, D.W., Wesner, R., Bowers, W., & Gabel, J. (1993a). A comparison of fluvoxamine, cognitive therapy, and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 44-50.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Black, D.W., Wesner, R., & Gabel, J. (1993b). The abrupt discontinuation of fluvoxamine in patients with panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54, 146-149.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchard, J.J., & Neale, J.M. (1992). Medication effects: conceptual and methodological issues in schizophrenia research. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 345-361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bockoven, J.S., & Solomon, H.C. (1975). Comparison of two five-year follow-up studies: 1947 to 1952 and 1967 to 1972. American Journal of Psychiatry 132, 796-801.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bollini, P., Pampallona, S., Orza, M.J., et al. (1994). Antipsychotic drugs: is more worse? A meta-analysis of the published randomized control trials. Psychological Medicine, 24, 307-316.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bos, R., Woerdenbag, H.J., & Zwaving, J.H. (1994). Valeriaan en valeriaanpreparaten. Pharmaceutisch Weekblad, 129, 37-43.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bourne, H. (1994). The safety and efficacy of clozapine? British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 267-268.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyer, W. (1995). Serotonin uptake inhibitors are superior to imipramine and alprazolam in alleviating panic attacks: a meta-analysis. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 45-49.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brugha, T.S., Bebbington, P.E., MacCarthy, B., et al. (1992). Antidepressants may not assist recovery in practice: a naturalistic prospective survey. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 86, 5-11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bruin, C. de (1994). Leponex op de woonunit. Maandblad voor Geestelijke volksgezondheid (MGv), 49, 1211-1222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buchan, H., Johnstone, E., McPherson, K., et al. (1992). Who benefits from electroconvulsive therapy? Combined results of the Leicester and Northwick Park trials. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 355-359.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burg, W. van den (1993). In search of biological determinants of depressions. Proefschrift RU Groningen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burg, W. van den (1994). De werkzaamheid van antidepressiva. Blikvernauwing in de biologische psychiatrie. Maandblad voor Geestelijke Volksgezondheid (MGv), 49, 1195-1210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burg, W. van den (1995). Blikvernauwing in de biologische psychiatrie. Antwoord aan Slooff en Den Boer. Maandblad voor Geestelijke Volksgezondheid (MGv), 50, 288-292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burger, A. (1976). History. In E. Usdin & I.S. Forrest (Eds.), Psychotropic drugs. Part 1, Principles (pp. 11-57). New York: Marcel Dekker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bystritsky, A., Rosen, R.M., Murphy, K.J., et al. (1994/1995). Double-blind pilot trial of desipramine versus fluoxetine in panic patients. Anxiety, 1, 287-290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, A.E. (1978). History of psychopharmacology. In W.G. Clark & J. del Giudice (Eds.), Principles of psychopharmacology. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter, W.T., Conley, R.R., Buchanan, R.W., et al. (1995). Patient response and resource management: another view of clozapine treatment of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 827-832.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Catalan, J., Gath, D., Edmonds, G., & Ennis J. (1984). The effects of non-prescribing of anxiolytics in general practice. I. Controlled evaluation of psychiatric and social outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 593-602.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Catalan, J., Gath, D.H., Anastasiades, P., et al. (1991). Evaluation of a brief psychological treatment for emotional disorders in primary care. Psychological Medicine, 21, 1013-1018.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Centorrino, F., Baldessarini, R.J., Kando, J.C., et al. (1994). Clozapine and metabolites: concentrations in serum and clinical findings during treatment of chronically psychotic patients. J. Clin. Psychopharmacology, 14, 119-125.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chadwick, P.D.J., Lowe, C.F., Horne, P.J., & Higson P.J. (1994). Modifying delusions: the role of empirical testing. Behavior Therapy, 25, 35-49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christison, G.W., Kirch, D.G., & Wyatt, R.J. (1991). When symptoms persist: choosing among alternative somatic treatments for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17, 217-245.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ciompi, L., Dauwalder, H.-P., Maier, C., et al. (1992). The pilot project ‘Soteria Berne’; clinical experiences and results. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161 (suppl. 18), 145-153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ciompi, L., Kupper, Z., Aebi, E., et al. (1993). Das Pilotprojekt ‘Soteria Bern’ zur Behandlung akut schizophrener. II. Ergebnisse einer vergleichenden prospektiven Verlaufsstudie über 2 Jahre. Der Nervenarzt, 64, 440-450.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.B., & Agras, W.S. (1991). The assessment and treatment of performance anxiety in musicians. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 598-605.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D.M., Salkovskis, P.M., Hackman, A., et al. (1994). A comparison of cognitive therapy, applied relaxation and imipramine in the treatment of panic disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 759-796.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L.A., Watson, D., & Reynolds, S. (1995). Diagnosis and classification of psychopathology: challenges to the current system and future directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 121-153.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clum, G.A., Clum, G.A., & Surls, R. (1993). A meta-analysis for panic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 317-326.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, B.M., Benes, F.M., & Baldessarini, R.J. (1989). Atypical neuroleptics, dose-response relationships, and treatment-resistant psychosis [letter]. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 381-383.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conte, H.R., Plutchik, R., Wild, K.V., & Karasu, T.B. (1986). Combined psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 471-479.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cookson, J. (1993). Side-effects of antidepressants. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163 (suppl. 20), 20-24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cottraux, J., Note, I.-D., Cungi, C., et al. (1995). A controlled study of cognitive behaviour therapy with buspirone or placebo in panic disorder with agoraphobia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 635-641.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox, B.J., Endler, N.S., Lee, P.S., & Swinson, R.P. (1992). A meta-analysis of treatments for panic disorder with agoraphobia: imipramine, alprazolam and in vivo exposure. Journal of Behaviour Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 23, 175-182.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Coyne, J.C., & Schwenk, T.L. (1995). AHCPR depression guidelines: countering misconceptions with more misconceptions? American Psychologist, 50, 452-453.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Craske, M.G. (1996). An integrated treatment approach to panic disorder. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 60 (suppl. A), A87-A104.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cross-national collaborative panic study, second phase investigators (1992). Drug treatment of panic disorder, comparative efficacy of alprazolam, imipramine, and placebo. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 191-202. Commentaar: 1992, 160, 202-205; 1992, 161, 465-471; 1993, 162, 795-796.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crow, T.J., MacMillan, J.F., Johnson, A.L., & Johnstone, E.C. (1986). The Northwick Park study of first episodes of schizophrenia. II. A randomised controlled trial of prophylactic neuroleptic treatment. British Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 120-127.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curran, H.V., Bond, A., O’Sullivan, G., et al. (1994). Memory functions, alprazolam and exposure therapy: a controlled longitudinal study of agoraphobia with panic disorder. Psychological Medicine, 24, 969-976.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cutler, N.R., Sramek, J.J., & Keppel Hesselink, J.M. (1993). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study comparing the efficacy and safety of ipsapirone versus lorazepam in patients with generalized anxiety disorder: a prospective multicenter trial. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13, 429-437.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cutmore, T.R.H., & Beninger, R.J. (1990). Do neuroleptics impair learning in schizophrenic patients? Schizophrenia Research 3, 173-186.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cuijpers, P. (1995). Bibliotherapie bij unipolaire depressie; een meta-analyse. Gedragstherapie, 28, 279-292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darcis, T., Ferreri, M., Natens, J., et al. (1995). A multicentre double-blind placebo-controlled study investigating the anxiolytic efficacy of hydroxyzine in patients with generalized anxiety. Human Psychopharmacology, 10, 181-187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J.R.T., Potts, N., Richichi, E., et al. (1993). Treatment of social phobia with clonazepam and placebo. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13, 423-428.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J.R.T., Tupler, L.A., & Potts, N.L.S. (1994). Treatment of social phobia with benzodiazepines. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55 (suppl. 6), 28-32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J.M., Gosenfeld, L., & Tsai, C.C. (1976). Maintenance antipsychotic drugs do prevent relapses: a reply to Tobias and MacDonald. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 431-447.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J.M., Wang, Z., & Janicak, P.G. (1993). A quantitative analysis of clinical drug trials for the treatment of affective disorders. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 29, 175-181.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Depression guideline panel (1993). Depression in primary care: Vol.2, Treatment of major depression. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: AHCPR publication No. 93-0551.

  • Dilsaver, S.C. (1994). Withdrawal phenomena associated with antidepressant and antipsychotic agents. Drug Safety, 10, 103-114.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dilsaver, S.C., & Greden, J.F. (1984). Antidepressant withdrawal phenomena. Biological Psychiatry, 19, 237-256.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dobson, K. (1989). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of cognitive therapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 414-419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunning, A.J. (1995). Opium: een oude geschiedenis. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 139, 2629-2632.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durham, R.C., & Allan, T. (1993). Psychological treatment of generalised anxiety disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 19-26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durham, R.C., Murphy, T., Allan, T., et al. (1994). Cognitive therapy, analytic psychotherapy and anxiety management training for generalised anxiety disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 315-323.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elkin, I., Shea, M.T., Collins, J.F., et al. (1989). National Institute of Mental Health treatment of depression collaborative research program: general effectiveness of treatments. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 971-982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elkin, I., Gibbons, R.D., Shea, M.T., & Shaw, B.F. (1996). Science is not a trial (but it can sometimes be a tribulation). Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 92-103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Emmelkamp, P.M.G., Bouman, T., & Scholing, A. (1995). Angst, fobieën en dwang (tweede druk). Houten/Diegem: Bohn Stafleu Van Loghum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans, M.D., Hollon, S.D., DeRubeis, R.J., et al. (1992). Differential relapse following cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy for depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 802-808.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fahlén, T., Nilsson, H.L., Borg, K., et al. (1995). Social phobia: the clinical efficacy and tolerability of the monoamine oxidase-A and serotonin uptake inhibitor brofaromine. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 92, 351-358.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Falloon, I.R.H. (1992). Early intervention for first episodes of schizophrenia. Psychiatry, 55, 4-15.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G.A. (1994). Do antidepressant and antianxiety drugs increase chronicity in affective disorders? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 61, 125-131.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G.A. (1995). Holding on: depression, sensitization by antidepressant drugs, and prodigal experts. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 64, 57-61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G.A., & Grandi, S. (1995). Withdrawal syndromes after paroxetine and sertraline discontinuation [letter]. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15, 374-375.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G.A., Grandi, S., Belluardo, P., et al. (1994a). Benzodiazepines and anxiety sensitivity in panic disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology, 18, 1163-1168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G.A., Grandi, S., Zielezny, M., et al. (1994b). Cognitive behavioral treatment of residual symptoms in primary major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1295-1299.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G.A., Zielezny, M., Savron, G., & Grandi, S. (1995). Long-term effects of behavioural treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 87-92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, G.A., Grandi, S., Zielezny, M., et al. (1996). Four-year outcome for cognitive behavioral treatment of residual symptoms in major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 945-947.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fava, M., Rosenbaum, J.F., McGrath, P.J., et al. (1994). Lithium and tricyclic augmentation of fluoxetine treatment for resistant major depression: a double-blind, controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1372-1374.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Feske, U., & Chambless, D.L. (1995). Cognitive-behavioral versus exposure treatment for social phobia: a meta-analysis. Behavior Therapy, 26, 695-712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fineberg, N.A., Bullock, T., Montgomery, D.B., et al. (1992). Serotonin reuptake inhibitors are the treatment of choice in obsessive compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7 (suppl. 1), 43-47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, R.L., & Fisher, S. (1996). Antidepressants for children, is scientific support necessary? Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184, 99-102.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, K., & Healy, D. (1995). Dystonias and dyskinesias of the jaw associated with the use of SSRIs. Human Psychopharmacology, 10, 215-219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Free, M.L., & Oei, T.P.S. (1989). Biological and psychological processes in the treatment and maintenance of depression. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 653-688.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, C.P.L., Trimble, M.R., Deakin, J.F.W., et al. (1994). Fluvoxamine versus clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multicenter randomized, double-blind parallel group comparison. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55, 301-305.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fyer, A.J., Liebowitz, M.R., Gorman, J.M., et al. (1987). Discontinuation of alprazolam treatment in panic patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 303-308.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gammons, R.E., Stringfellow, J.C., Hvizdos, A.J., et al. (1992). Use of buspirone in patients with generalized anxiety disorder and coexisting depressive symptoms. Neuropsychobiology, 25, 193-201.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter, C.S., Uhde, T., Cimbolic, P., et al. (1991). Cognitive-behavioral and pharmacological treatments of social phobia. Archives of General Psychiatry,48, 938-945.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbons, R.D., Hedeker, D., Elkin, I., et al. (1993). Some conceptual and statistical issues in analysis of longitudinal psychiatric data. Application to the NIMH treatment of depression collaborative research program dataset. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 739-750.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, P.L., Harris, M.J., McAdams, L.A., & Jeste, D.V. (1995). Neuroleptic withdrawal in schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 173-188.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glen, A.I.M., Johnson, A.L., & Shepherd, M. (1984). Continuation therapy with lithium and amitriptyline in unipolar depressive illness: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. Psychological Medicine, 14, 37-50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Golombok, S., Higgitt, A., Fonagy, P., et al. (1987). A follow-up study of patients treated for benzodiazepine dependence. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 60, 141-149.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, F.K. (1993). Predictors of antidepressant response. Bulletin of the Mellinger Clinic, 57, 146-160.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, R.A., & Clum, G.A. (1993). A meta-analysis of self-help treatment approaches. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 169-186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gould, R.A., Otto, M.W., & Pollack, M.H. (1995). A meta-analysis of treatment outcome for panic disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 819-844.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greden, J.F. (1993). Antidepressant maintenance medications: when to discontinue and how to stop. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54 (suppl. 8), 39-47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R.P., & Fisher S. (1989). Examining antidepressant effectiveness: findings, ambiguities and some vexing puzzles. In S. Fisher en R.P. Greenberg (Eds.), The limits of biological treatments for psychological distress (pp. 1-37). Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R.P., & Fisher, S. (1994). Suspended judgment. Seeing through the double-masked design: a commentary. Controlled Clinical Trials, 15, 244-246.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R.P., Bornstein, R.F., Greenberg, M.D., & Fisher, S. (1992). A meta-analysis of antidepressant outcome under ‘blinder’ conditions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 664-669.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, R.P., Bornstein, R.F., Zborowski, M.J., et al. (1994). A meta-analysis of fluoxetine treatment in the treatment of depression. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 547-551.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenhouse, J.B., Stangl, D., Kupfer, D.J., & Prien, R.F. (1991). Methodologic issues in maintenance therapy clinical trials. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 313-318.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greist, J.H. (1994). Behavior therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55 (suppl. 10), 60-68.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greist, J.H., Jefferson, J.W., Kobak, K.A., et al. (1995). Efficacy and tolerability of serotonin transport inhibitors in obsessive-compulsive disorder, a meta-analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 53-60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grof, P. (1994). Designing long-term clinical trials in affective disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 30, 243-255.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halström, C. (Ed.) (1993). Benzodiazepine dependence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harding, C.M., & Zahniser, J.H. (1994). Empirical correction of seven myths about schizophrenia with implications for treatment. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (suppl. 384), 140-146.

  • Hazell, P., O’Connell, D., Heathcote, D., et al. (1995). Efficacy of tricyclic drugs in treating child and adolescent depression: a meta-analysis. British Medical Journal, 310, 897-901.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D. (1989). Neuroleptics and psychic indifference: a review. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 82, 615-619.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D. (1990a). Schizophrenia: basic, release, reactive and defect processes. Human Psychopharmacology, 5, 105-121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D.T. (1990b). The psychopharmacological era: notes toward a history. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 4, 152-167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D. (1991a). The marketing of 5-hydroxytryptamine: depression or anxiety. British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 737-742.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D. (1991b). What do 5HT re-uptake inhibitors do in obsessive-compulsive disorders? Human Psychopharmacology, 6, 325-328.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D. (1993a). Psychiatric drugs explained. London: Mosby.

    Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D. (1993b). Psychopharmacology and the ethics of resource allocation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 23-29.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D. (1994). The fluoxetine and suicide controversy. A review of the evidence. CNS Drugs, 1, 223-231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Healy, D., & Watson, F. (1995). The use of healthy volunteers in human psychopharmacology: problems and opportunities. In I. Hindmarch & P.D. Stonier, Human Psychopharmacology, Vol. 5 (pp. 63-87). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimberg, R.G., & Juster, H.R. (1995). Cognitive-behavioral treatments: literature review. In R.G. Heimberg et al. (Eds.), Social phobia: diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 261-309). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heinrich, K., & Lehmann, E. (1992). Low dose neuroleptanxiolysis in anxiety states. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 16, 135-143.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Herings, R.M.C. (1995). Femurfracturen, vallen en het gebruik van benzodiazepines: dosering belangrijker dan eliminatiehalfwaardetijd. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Farmacotherapie (NTvF), 1, 2-9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewlett, W.A., Vinogradov, S., & Agras, W.S. (1992). Clomipramine, clonazepam, and clonidine treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12, 420-430.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Higgitt, A., & Fonagy, P. (1993). Benzodiazepine dependence syndromes and syndromes of withdrawal. In C. Halström (Ed.), Benzodiazepine dependence (pp. 58-70). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoes, M.J.A.J.M. (1993). Nieuw is zilver, oud is goud?! Over antidepressiva. TGO Tijdschrift voor Therapie, Geneesmiddel en Onderzoek, 18, 17-23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollister, L.E., Müller-Oerlinghausen, B., Rickels, K., & Shader, R.I. (1993). Clinical uses of benzodiazepines. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13 (suppl. 1).

  • Hollister, L.E. (1994). New psychotherapeutic drugs. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14, 50-63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hollon, S.D., Shelton, R.C., & Loosen, P.T. (1991). Cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 88-99.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Honigveld, G. (1996). Effects of the clozapine national registry system on incidence of deaths related to agranulocytosis. Psychiatric services, 47, 52-56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoofdakker, R.H. van den, Berkestijn, J.W.B.M. van (1989). Biologische behandelwijzen. In F.A. Albersnagel, P.M.G. Emmelkamp & R.H. van den Hoofdakker (red.), Depressie: theorie, diagnostiek en behandeling (pp. 149-196). Deventer: Van Loghum Slaterus.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, C., & Singh, M. (1991). Generalized anxiety disorder. International Review of Psychiatry, 3, 215-229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jablensky, A., Sartorius, N., Ernberg, G., et al. (1992). Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization ten-country study. Psychological Medicine, monograph suppl. 20.

  • Jablensky, A., Sartorius, N., Cooper, J.E., et al. (1994). Culture and schizophrenia. Criticisms of WHO studies are answered. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 434-436.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, N.S., & Hollon, S.D. (1996a). Cognitive-behavior therapy versus pharmacotherapy: now that the jury's returned its verdict, it's time to present the rest of the evidence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 74-80.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson, N.S., & Hollon, S.D. (1996b). Prospects for future comparisons between drugs and psychotherapy: lessons from the CBT-versus-pharmacotherapy exchange. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 104-108.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janicak, P.G., Davis, J.M., Preskorn, S.H., & Ayd, F.J. (1993). Principles and practice of psychopharmacology. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jefferson, J.W. (1995). Social phobia: a pharmacologic treatment overview. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 56 (suppl. 5), 18-24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jenike, M.A. (1992). Pharmacologic treatment of obsessive compulsive disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 895-919.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeste, D.V., Gilbert, P.L., McAdams, L.A., & Harris, M.J. (1995). Considering neuroleptic maintenance and taper on a continuum. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 209-212.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jobson, K.O. (1995). Algorithm for the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 31, 483-485.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D.A.W. (1986). Non-compliance with antidepressant therapy – an underestimated problem. International Medicine (suppl. 11), 14-19.

  • Johnstone, E.C., Cunningham Owens, D.G., Frith, C.D., et al. (1980). Neurotic illness and its response to anxiolytic and antidepressant treatment. Psychological Medicine, 10, 321-328.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone, E.C., MacMillan, J.F., Frith, C.D., et al. (1990). Further investigation of the predictors of outcome following first episode schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 182-189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joyce, P.R., & Paykel, E.S. (1989). Predictors of drug response in depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 89-99.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Julien, R.M. (1995). A primer of drug action (7th ed.). New York: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, R.J., McNair, D.M., Lipman, R.S., et al. (1986). Imipramine and chloordiazepoxide in depressive and anxiety disorders. II. Efficacy in anxious outpatients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 79-85.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Karon, B.P. (1989). Psychotherapy versus medication for schizophrenia: empirical comparisons. In S. Fisher & R.P. Greenberg (Eds.), The limits of biological treatments for psychological distress (pp. 105-150). Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katon, W., Von Korff, M., Lin, E., et al. (1992). Adequacy and duration of antidepressant treatment in primary care. Medical Care, 30, 67-76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katschnig, H., Amering, M., Stolk, J.M., et al. (1995). Long-term follow-up after a drug trial for panic disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 487-494.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keck, P.E., Cohen, B.M., Baldessarini, R.J., & McElroy, S.L. (1989). Time course of antipsychotic effects of neuroleptic drugs. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1289-1292.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, M.B., Lavori, P.W., Mueller, T.I., et al. (1992). Time to recovery, chronicity, and levels of psychopathology in major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 809-816.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kendell, R.E. (1993). Schizophrenia. In R.E. Kendell & A.K. Zeally (Eds.), Companion to psychiatric studies (pp. 397-426). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keppel Hesselink, J.M. (1995). Some methodological problems of assessing severity of illness and outcome of therapeutic interventions within psychopharmacological drug research. In I. Hindmarch & P.D. Stonier, Human Psychopharmacology, Vol. 5 (pp. 15-29). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingdon, D.G., & Turkington, D. (1994). Cognitive behavioral therapy of schizophrenia. Hove: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingdon, D., Tyrer, P., Seivewright, N., et al. (1996). The Nottingham study of neurotic disorder: influence of cognitive therapists on outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 93-97.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kinon, B.J., Kane, J.M., Johns, C., et al. (1993). Treatment of neuroleptic-resistant schizophrenic relapse. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 29, 309-314.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kissling, W. (1992). Ideal and reality of neuroleptic relapse prevention. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161 (suppl. 18), 133-139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koran, L.M., McElroy, S.L., Davidson, J.R.T., et al. (1996). Fluvoxamine versus clomipramine for obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double-blind comparison. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16, 121-129.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kragh-Sorensen, P., Holm, P., Fynboe, C., et al. (1990). Bromazepam in generalized anxiety. Psychopharmacology, 100, 383-386.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kreisman, D., Blumenthal, R., Borenstein, M., et al. (1988). Family attitudes and patient social adjustment in a longitudinal study of outpatient schizophrenics receiving low-dose neuroleptics: the family's view. Psychiatry, 51, 3-13.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krüger, S., Bräunig, P., & Young, L.T. (1996). Biological treatment of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Pharmacopsychiatry, 29, 167-175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kukopulos, A., Caliari, B., Tundo, A., et al. (1983). Rapid cyclers, temperament, and antidepressants. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 24, 249-258.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kurz, M., Hummer, M., Oberhauer, H., et al. (1996). Termination of clozapine treatment [Abstract]. Schizophrenia Research, 18, 125-126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuy, A. van der (eindred.) (1996). Farmacotherapeutisch Kompas 1996. CMPC Ziekenfondsraad.

  • Lader, M. (1993a). Neuroleptic-induced deficit syndrome: old problem, new challenge. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 7, 392-393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lader, M. (1993b). Historical development of the concept of tranquillizer dependence. In C. Halström (Ed.), Benzodiazepine dependence (pp. 46-57). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lader, M. (1994). Benzodiazepines, a risk-benefit profile. CNS Drugs, 1, 377-387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laws, D., Ashford, J.J., & Anstee, J.A. (1990). A multicentre double-blind comparative trial of fluvoxamine versus lorazepam in mixed anxiety and depression treated in general practice. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 81, 185-189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemstra, A., Leentjens, A.F.G., & Broek, W.W. van den (1996). Slechts tijdelijke resultaten van electroconvulsietherapie bij therapieresistente depressie; retrospectief onderzoek. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 140, 260-264.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leo, R.J. (1996). Movement disorders associated with the serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57, 449-454.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, H.L., Swedo, S.E., Rapoport, J.L., et al. (1989). Treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder with clomipramine and desipramine in children and adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1088-1092.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liberman, R.P., Falloon, I.R.H., & Wallace, C.J. (1984). Drug-psychosocial interactions in the treatment of schizophrenia. In M. Mirabi & L. Feldman (Eds.), The chronically mentally ill; research and services (pp. 175-212). Lancaster: MTP Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lidren, D.M., Watkins, P.L., Gould, R.A., et al. (1994). A comparison of bibliotherapy and group therapy in the treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 865-869.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, J., Jody, D., Geisler, S., et al. (1993). Time course and biological correlates of treatment response in first-episode schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 369-376.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liebowitz, M.R., & Marshall, R.D. (1995). Pharmacological treatments: clinical applications. In R.G. Heimberg et al. (eds), Social phobia: diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 366-383). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebowitz, M.R., Gorman, J.R., Fyer, A.J., & Klein, D.F. (1985). Social phobia, review of a neglected anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 729-736.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liebowitz, M.R., Schneier, F., Campeas, R., et al. (1992). Phenelzine vs Atenolol in social phobia; a placebo-controlled comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 290-300.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay, W.R., Gamsu, C.V., McLaughlin, E., et al. (1987). A controlled trial of treatments for generalised anxiety. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 26, 3-15.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Linsen, S.M., Zitman, F.G., & Breteler, M.H.M. (1995). Defining benzodiazepine dependence: the confusion persists. European Psychiatry, 10, 306-311.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lipman, R., Vanov, S.K., Arrington, W.S., et al. (1977). A multiclinic double-blind trial of the anxiolytic properties of lorazepam in psychiatric outpatient practice. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 13, 17-19.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lipman, R.S., Covi, L., Rickels, K., et al. (1986). Imipramine and chloordiazepoxide in depressive and anxiety disorders. I. Efficacy in depressed outpatients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 68-77.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loebel, A.D., Lieberman, J.A., Alvir, J.M.J., et al. (1992). Duration of psychosis and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1183-1188.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Louwerens, J.W., Korf, J., & Slooff, C.J. (1994). Geprotocolleerde farmacotherapie bij psychosen. Pharmaceutisch Weekblad, 129, 528-534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Louwerens, J.W., Slooff, C.J., & Moleman, P. (1994). Farmacotherapie van schizofrenie. In R.J. van den Bosch, J.W. Louwerens & C.J. Slooff (red.), Behandelingsstrategieën bij schizofrenie (pp. 46-70). Houten: Bohn, Stafleu Van Loghum.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, M.L., & Tobias, L.L. (1976). Withdrawal causes relapse? Our response. Psychological Bulletin, 83, 448-451.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacMillan, J.F., Crow, T.J., Johnson, A.L., & Johnstone, E.C. (1986). The Northwick Park study of first episodes of schizophrenia. III. Short-term outcome in trial entrants and trial eligible patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 128-133.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maddox, J.C., Levi, M., & Thompson, C. (1994). The compliance with antidepressants in general practice. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 8, 48-53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maj, M. (1994). Predictors of course of depression. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 7, 22-25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marder, S.R., Van Putten, T., Mintz, J., et al. (1987). Low- and conventional-dose maintenance therapy with fluphenazine decanoate. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 518-521.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I.M., & O’Sullivan, G. (1989). Anti-anxiety drug and psychological treatment effects in agoraphobia/panic and obsessive-compulsive disorders. In P. Tyrer (Ed.), Psychopharmacology of anxiety (pp. 196-242). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I.M., Swinson, R.P., Basoglu, M., et al. (1993a). Alprazolam and exposure alone and combined in panic disorder with agoraphobia. A controlled study in London and Toronto. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 776-787. Commentaar: 1993, 162, 788-794.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I.M., Swinson, R.P., Basoglu, M., et al. (1993b). Reply to comment on the London/Toronto study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 1993b, 162, 790-794.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, R.D., & Schneier, F.R. (1996). An algorithm for the pharmacotherapy of social phobia. Psychiatric Annals, 26, 210-216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattick, R.P., Andrews, G., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., & Christensen, H. (1990). Treatment of panic and agoraphobia: an integrative review. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 178, 567-576.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mavissakalian, M. (1993). Combined behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy of agoraphobia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 27 (suppl. 1), 179-191.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • May, P.R.A. (1968). Treatment of schizophrenia: a comparative study of five treatment methods. New York: Science House.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCombs, J.S. (1990). The cost of antidepressant drug therapy failure: a study of antidepressant use patterns in a medicaid population. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51 (suppl. 6), 60-71.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDougle, C.J., Goodman, W.K., Leckman, J.F., & Price, L.H. (1993). The psychopharmacology of obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 16, 749-766.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McNally, R.J. (1996). Methodological controversies in the treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 88-91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Medawar, C. (1992). Power and dependence. Londen: Social Audit Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meibach, R.C., Dunner, D., & Wilson, L.G. (1987). Comparative efficacy of propanolol, chloordiazepoxide, and placebo in the treatment of anxiety: a double-blind trial. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 48, 355-358.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mendels, J., Krajewski, T.F., & Huffer, V. (1986). Effective short-term treatment of generalized anxiety disorder with trifluoperazine. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47, 170-174.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mersch, P.P.A. (1994). The long-term effectiveness of behavioral and cognitive treatments for social phobia: review and methodological issues. In P.P.A. Mersch, The behavioral and cognitive therapy for social phobia (pp. 108-112). Groningen, RUG: proefschrift.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mezzina, R., & Vidoni, D. (1995). Beyond the mental hospital: crisis intervention and continuity of care in Trieste. A four year follow-up study in a community mental health centre. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 41, 1-20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michel, K., Arestegui, G., & Spuhler, T. (1994). Suicide with psychotropic drugs in Switzerland. Pharmacopsychiatry, 27, 114-118.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, N.S. (1995). Liability and efficacy from long-term use of benzodiazepines: documentation and interpretation. Psychiatric Annals, 25, 166-173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mintz, J., Mintz, L.I., & Phipps, C.C. (1992). Treatments of mental disorders and the functional capacity to work. In R.P. Liberman (Ed.), Handbook of psychiatric rehabilitation (pp. 290-316). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moleman, P. (1995). Dosering van antipsychotica. Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie, 37, 823-824.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moncrieff, J. (1995). Lithium revisited. A re-examination of the placebo-controlled trials of lithium profylaxis in manic-depressive disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 569-574.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, S.A. (1994). Long-term treatment of depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165 (suppl. 26), 31-36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, J., & Tyrer, P. (1994). Treating the somatic symptoms of anxiety. CNS Drugs, 1, 427-434.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgenstern, H., Glazer, W.M., Niedzwiecki, D., & Nourjah, P. (1987). The impact of neuroleptic medication on tardive dyskinesia: a meta-analysis of published studies. American Journal of Public Health, 77, 717-724.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, J.B., & Beck, A.T. (1974). The efficacy of antidepressant drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry, 30, 667-674.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mosher, L.R., Vallone, R., & Menn, A. (1995). The treatment of acute psychosis without neuroleptics: six-week psychopathology outcome data from the Soteria project. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 41, 157-173.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mueser, K.T. (1990). Psychodynamic treatment of schizophrenia: is there a future? Psychological Medicine, 20, 253-262.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mueser, K.T., Bellack, A.S., & Blanchard, J.J. (1992). Comorbidity of schizophrenia and substance abuse: implications for treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 845-856.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz, R.F., Hollon, S.D., McGrath, E., et al. (1994). On the AHCPR Depression in primary care guidelines. American Psychologist, 49, 42-61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, E.D., & Branthwaite, A. (1992). Out-patient compliance with antidepressant medication. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 83-86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mynors-Wallis, L.M., Gath, D.H., Lloyd-Thomas, A.R., & Tomlinson, D. (1995). Randomised controlled trial comparing amitryptiline and placebo for major depression in primary care. British Medical Journal, 310, 441-445.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen, W.A. (1995). The clinical relevance of treatment with antidepressants. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 7, 52-54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nolen, W.A., Haffmans, P.M.J., Bouvy, P.F., & Duivenvoorden, H.J. (1993). Monoamine oxidase inhibitors in resistant major depression. A double-blind comparison of brofaromine and tranylcypromine in patients resistant to tricyclic antidepressants. Journal of Affective Disorders, 28, 189-197.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nolen, W.A., Zohar, J., Roose, S.P., & Amsterdam, J.D. (Eds.) (1994). Refractory depression: current strategies and future directions. Chicester: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noyes, R., Garvey, M.J., Cook, B.L., & Perry, P.J. (1988). Benzodiazepine withdrawal: a review of the evidence. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49, 382-389.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noyes, R., Burrows, G.D., Reich, J.H., et al. (1996). Diazepam versus alprazolam for the treatment of panic disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57, 349-355.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oehrberg, S., Christiansen, P.E., Behnke, K., et al. (1995). Paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 374-379.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Offerhaus, L. (1988). Nogmaals benzodiazepinen: te veel, te lang, te sterk? Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 132, 1921-1924.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Offerhaus, L. (1994). Buitenlandse rapportage over bijwerkingen van geneesmiddelen. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 138, 235-236.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Olivieri, S., Cantopher, T., & Edwards, J.G. (1986). Two hundred years of dependence on antianxiety drugs. Human Psychopharmacology, 1, 117-123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Sullivan, G.H., & Marks, I. (1990). Long-term outcome of phobic and obsessive-compulsive disorders after treatment. In R. Noyes, M. Roth, & G.D. Burrows (Eds.), Handbook of Anxiety, Vol. 4 (pp. 87-108). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Sullivan, G.H., Noshirvani, H., Basoglu, M., et al. (1994). Safety and side-effects of alprazolam. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 79-86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Sullivan, G.H., Swinson, R., Kuch, K., et al. (1996). Alprazolam withdrawal symptoms in agoraphobia with panic disorder: observations from a controlled anglo-canadian study. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 10, 101-109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Otto, M.W., & Whittal, M.L. (1995). Cognitive-behavior therapy and the longitudinal course of panic disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 18, 803-820.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Otto, M.W., Pollack, M.H., Sachs, G.S., et al. (1993). Discontinuation of benzodiazepine treatment: efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy for patients with panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1485-1490.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parker, G., Roy, K., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., & Pedic, F. (1992). Psychotic (delusional) depression: a meta-analysis of physical treatments. Journal of Affective Disorders, 24, 17-24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, G.L. (1985). Can pregnancy be a placebo effect?: terminology, designs, and conclusions in the study of psychosocial and pharmacological treatments of behavioral disorders. In L. White, B. Tursky & G.E. Schwartz (Eds.): Placebo; theory, research and mechanisms (pp. 137-163). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul, G.L., Tobias, L.L., & Holly, B.L. (1972). Maintenance psychotropic drugs in the presence of active treatment programs. Archives of General Psychiatry, 27, 106-115.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E.S. (1994a). Historical overview of outcome of depression. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165 (suppl. 26), 6-8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E.S. (1994b). The place of antidepressants in long-term treatment. In S.A. Montgomery & T.H. Corn (Eds.), Psychopharmacology of depression (pp. 218-239). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E.S., & Priest, R.G. (1992). Recognition and management of depression in general practice: consensus statement. British Medical Journal, 305, 1198-1202.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E.S., Ramana, R., Cooper, Z., et al. (1995). Residual symptoms after partial remission: an important outcome in depression. Psychological Medicine, 25, 1171-1180.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, R.M. (1990). Beta-blockers in anxiety: the musician's dilemma. In D. Wheatley (Ed.), The anxiolytic jungle: where next? (pp. 153-162). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, P.J., Garvey, M.J., & Noyes, R. (1990). Benzodiazepine treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. In R. Noyes, M. Roth & G.D. Burrows (Eds.), Handbook of Anxiety, Vol. 4 (pp. 111-124). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Persaud, R., & Marks, I. (1995). A pilot study of exposure control of chronic auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 45-50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Persons, J.B., Thase, M.E., & Crits-Cristoph, P. (1996). The role of psychotherapy in the treatment of depression. Review of two practice guidelines. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 283-304.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piccinelli, M., Pini, S., Bellantuono, C., & Wilkinson, G. (1995). Efficacy of drug treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder, a meta-analytic review. British Journal of Psychiatry, 166, 424-443.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pollack, M.H., & Smoller, J.W. (1995). The longitudinal course and outcome of panic disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 18, 785-801.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Potts, N.L.S., & Davidson, J.R.T. (1995). Pharmacological treatments: literature review. In R.G. Heimberg et al. (Eds.), Social phobia: diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 334-365). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Power, K.G., Jerrom, D.W.A., Simpson, R.J., et al. (1989). A controlled comparison of cognitive behaviour therapy, diazepam and placebo in the management of generalised anxiety. Behavioural Psychotherapy, 17, 1-14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Power, K.G., Simpson, R.J., Swanson, V., & Wallace, L.A. (1990). A controlled comparison of cognitive-behaviour therapy, diazepam, alone and in combination, for the treatment of generalised anxiety disorder. Journal of anxiety disorders, 4, 267-292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Praag, H.M. van (1988). Psychofarmaca (derde druk). Assen: Van Gorcum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Praag, H.M. van (1993). Against the unitary concept of schizophrenia. In H.M. van Praag, ‘Make-believes’ in psychiatry, or the perils of progress (pp. 62-110). New York: Brunner/Mazel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quality Assurance Project (1985). Treatment outlines for the management of anxiety scales. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 19, 138-151.

  • Ram, R., Bromet, E.J., Eaton, W.W., et al. (1992). The natural course of schizophrenia: a review of first-admission studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18, 185-207.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ramana, R., Paykel, E.S., Cooper, Z., et al. (1995). Remission and relapse in major depression: a two-year prospective follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 25, 1161-1170.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ravizza, L., Barzega, G., Bellino, S., et al. (1996). Drug treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): long-term trial with clomipramine and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRis). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 32, 167-173.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reich, J., Goldenberg, I., Vasile, R., et al. (1994). A prospective follow-along study of the course of social phobia. Psychiatry Research, 54,249-258.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rickels, K., & Schweizer, E. (1995). Long-term treatment of anxiety disorders. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 31, 115-123.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rickels, K., Weisman, K., & Norstad, N. (1982). Buspirone and diazepam in anxiety: a controlled study. Journal of Clinical Anxiety, 12 (sec. 2), 81-86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rickels, K., Schweizer, E., Csanalosi, I., et al. (1988). Long-term treatment of anxiety and risk of withdrawal. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 444-450.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rickels, K., Schweizer, E., Case, G., & Greenblatt, D.J. (1990). Long-term therapeutic use of benzodiazepines. I. Effects of abrupt discontinuation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 47, 899-907.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rickels, K., Downing, R., Schweizer, E., & Hassman, H. (1993a). Antidepressants for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 884-895.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rickels, K., Schweizer, E., Weiss, S., & Zavodnick, S. (1993b). Maintenance drug treatment for panic disorder II. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 51-60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rifkin, A., Quitkin, F., Rabiner, C.J., & Klein, D.F. (1977). Fluphenazine decanoate, fluphenazine hydrochloride given orally, and placebo in remitted schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 43-47.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rifkin, A. (1988). ECT versus tricyclic antidepressants: a review of the evidence. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49 (suppl. 1), 3-7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Royal College of Psychiatrists. (1988). Benzodiazepines and dependence: a college statement. Bulletin of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 12, 107-109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rummans, T.A., Davis, L.J., Morse. R.M., & Ivnik, R.J. (1993). Learning and memory impairment in older, detoxified, benzodiazepine-dependent patients. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, 63, 731-737.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sacchetti, E., Zerbini, O., Banfi, F., & Tansella, M. (1994). Overlap of buspirone with lorazepam, diazepam and bromazepam in patients with generalized anxiety disorder: findings from a controlled, multicentre, double-blind study. Human Psychopharmacology, 9, 409-422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sackeim, H.A. (1989). The efficacy of electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment of major depressive disorder. In S. Fisher & R.P. Greenberg (Eds.), The limits of biological treatments for psychological distress (pp. 275-307). Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanderson, W.C., & Wetzler, S. (1993). Observations on the cognitive behavioral treatment of panic disorder: impact of benzodiazepines. Psychotherapy, 30, 125-132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schene, A.H., & Linszen, D.H. (1994). Clozapine, een herontdekt antipsychoticum. Maandblad voor Geestelijke Volksgezondheid (MGv), 49, 1223-1232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmauss, M., & Erfurth, A. (1993). Prädiktion des antidepressiven Behandlungserfolgs – kritische Übersicht und Perspektiven. Fortschritte der Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 61, 274-283.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scholing, A., & Emmelkamp, P.M.G. (1996). Treatment of generalized social phobia: results at long-term follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 447-452.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulberg, H.C., Block, M.R., & Madonia, M.J. (1995). Applicability of clinical pharmacotherapy guidelines for major depression in primary care settings. Archives of Family Medicine, 4, 106-112.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schweizer, E., Case, W.G., & Rickels, K. (1989). Dr. Schweizer and Associates reply. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schweizer, E., Rickels, K., Weiss, S., & Zavodnick, S. (1993). Maintenance drug treatment of panic disorder I. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 51-60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schweizer, E., Rickels, K., & Uhlenhuth, E.H. (1995). Issues in the long-term treatment of anxiety disorders. In F.E. Bloom & D.J. Kupfer (Eds.), Psychopharmacology: the fourth generation of progress (pp.1349-1359). New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scott, A.I., & Freeman, C.P.L. (1992). Edinburgh primary care depression study: treatment outcome, patient satisfaction, and cost after 16 weeks. British Medical Journal, 304, 883-887.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scott, J. (1996). Cognitive therapy of affective disorders: a review. Journal of Affective Disorders, 37, 1-11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Serfaty, M., & Masterton, G. (1993). Fatal poisonings attributed to benzodiazepines in Britain during the 1980s. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 386-393.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro, A.K., Struening, E.L., Shapiro, E., & Milcarek, B.I. (1983). Diazepam: how much better than placebo? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17, 51-73.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, D.M., Power, K.G., & Simpson, R.J. (1995). Five group comparisons of treatments for anxiety disorders [letter]. British Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 820-821.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharp, D.M., Power, K.G., Simpson, R.J., et al. (1996). Fluvoxamine, placebo and cognitive behaviour therapy, used alone and in combination in the treatment of panic disorder and agoraphobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 10, 219-242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shea, M.T., Elkin, I., Imber, S.D., et al. (1992). Course of depressive symptoms over follow-up. Findings from the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 782-787.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan, D.V., Ray, A.B., Harnett-Sheehan, K., et al. (1993). The relative efficacy of high-dose buspirone and alprazolam in the treatment of panic disorder: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88, 1-11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shepherd, M. (1990). The ‘neuroleptics’ and the Oedipus effect. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 4, 131-135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siris, S.G. (1990). Pharmacological treatment of depression in schizophrenia. In L.E. DeLisi (Ed.), Depression in schizophrenia (pp.141-162). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, S.H. (1971). Uses of marijuana. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, K., & Hart, R. (1978). Pitfalls and prospects in clinical research on antianxiety drugs: benzodiazepines and placebo – a research review. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 39, 823-831.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Song, F., Freemantle, N., Sheldon, T.A., et al. (1993). Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: meta-analysis of efficacy and acceptability. British Medical Journal, 306, 683-687.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soni, S.D., Gaskell, K., & Reed, P. (1994). Factors affecting rehospitalisation rates of chronic schizophrenic patients living in the community. Schizophrenia Research, 12, 169-177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sramek, J.J., Tansman, M., Suri, A., et al. (1996). Efficacy of buspirone in generalised anxiety disorder with coexisting mild depressive symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57, 287-291.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, M.A., & Turner, S.M. (1995). Current status of pharmacological and behavioral treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behavior Therapy, 26, 163-186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, D.J., Hollander, E., Mullen, L.S., et al. (1992). Comparison of clomipramine, alprazolam and placebo in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Human Psychopharmacology, 7, 389-395.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, D.J., Spadaccini, E., & Hollander, E. (1995). Meta-analysis of pharmacotherapy trials for obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10, 11-18.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steingard, S., Allen, M., & Schooler, N.R. (1994). A study of pharmacologic treatment of medication-compliant schizophrenics who relapse. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55, 470-472.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stuart, S., & Bowers, W.A. (1995). Cognitive therapy with inpatients: review and meta-analysis. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 9, 85-92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, F.K. (1989). The damnation of benzodiazepines. British Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 697-704.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. (1996). Meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral treatments for social phobia. Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 27, 1-9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thase, M.E., & Howland, R.H. (1994). Refractory depression: relevance of psychosocial factors and therapies. Psychiatric Annals, 24, 232-240.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson, R. (1982). Side effects and placebo amplification. British Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 64-68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tiller, J.W.G., & Schweitzer, I. (1992). Benzodiazepines. Depressants or antidepressants? Drugs, 44, 165-169.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tobias, L.L., & MacDonald, M.L. (1974). Withdrawal of maintenance drugs with long-term hospitalized mental patients: a critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 81, 107-125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tollefson, G.D., Holman, S.L., Sayler, M.E., & Potvin, J.H. (1994). Fluoxetine, placebo, and tricyclic antidepressants in major depression with and without anxious features. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55, 50-59.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, S.M., Beidel, D., & Jacob, R.G. (1994). Social phobia: a comparison of behavior therapy and atenolol. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 350-358.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tyrer, P. (1989). Classification of neurosis. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyrer, P., Seivewright, N., Murphy, S., et al. (1988). The Nottingham study of neurotic disorder: comparison of drug and psychological treatments. Lancet, ii, 235-240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tyrer, P., Seivewright, N., Ferguson, B., et al. (1993). The Nottingham study of neurotic disorder: effect of personality status on response to drug treatment, cognitive therapy and self-help over two years. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 219-226.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vallejo, J., Olivares, J., Marcos, T., et al. (1992). Clomipramine versus phenelzine in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a controlled clinical trial. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 665-670.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Putten, T., & Marder, S.R. (1987). Behavioral toxicity of antipsychotic drugs. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 48 (suppl. 9), 13-19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verhoeven, W.M.A., Noten, J.B.G.M., Tuinier, S., & Schendel F.M.E. van (1995). Het serotoninesyndroom; een miskende complicatie van antidepressiva. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 139, 2073-2075.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Versiani, M., Nardi, A.E., Mundim, F.D., et al. (1992). Pharmacotherapy of social phobia; a controlled study with moclobemide and phenelzine. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 353-360.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vink, J., Nolen, W.A., & Verbraak, M. (1994). Is moclobemide bij therapieresistente depressie een alternatief voor tranylcypromine? Tijdschrift voor Psychiatrie, 36, 639-646.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vliet, I.M. van, Boer, J.A. den, & Westenberg, H.G.M. (1994). Psychopharmacological treatment of social phobia; a double blind placebo controlled study with fluvoxamine. Psychopharmacology, 115, 128-134.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warner, R. (1994). Recovery from schizophrenia (2nd ed.). Londen: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welkowitz, L.A., & Liebowitz, M. (1990). Pharmacological treatment of social phobia and performance anxiety. In R. Noyes, M. Roth & G.D. Burrows (Eds.), Handbook of Anxiety, Vol. 4 (pp. 233-253). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wexler, B.E., & Cicchetti, D.V. (1992). The outpatient treatment of depression. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 180, 277-286.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wexler, B.E., & Nelson J.G. (1993). The treatment of major depressive disorders. International Journal of Mental Health, 22, 7-41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheatley, D. (1990). Beta-blockers in anxiety: the stress connection. In D. Wheatley (Ed.), The anxiolytic jungle: where next? (pp. 137-152). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilde, M.I., & Benfield, P. (1995). Tianeptine. Drugs, 49, 411-439.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, G., Balestrieri, M., Ruggeri, M., & Bellantuono, C. (1991). Meta-analysis of double-blind placebo controlled trials of antidepressants and benzodiazepines for patients with panic disorders. Psychological Medicine, 21, 991-998.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, W. (1993). Addition of lithium to haloperidol in non-affective non-responsive schizophrenia: a double blind, placebo controlled, parallel design clinical trial. Psychopharmacology, 111, 359-366.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wing, J.K. (1978). The social context of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 1333-1339.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolkowitz, O.M., & Pickar, D. (1991). Benzodiazepines in the treatment of schizophrenia: a review and reappraisal. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 714-726.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Workman, E.A., & Short, D.D. (1993). A typical antidepressants versus imipramine in the treatment of major depression: a meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54, 5-12. Correction: 1994, 55, 499-500.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, R.J. (1991). Neuroleptics and the natural course of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 17, 325-351.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wyatt, R.J. (1995/96). Early intervention in schizophrenia improves the long-term course of the illness [Abstract]. Schizophrenia Research, 15, 170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zarate, C.A., Tohen, M., & Baldessarini, R.J. (1995). Clozapine in severe mood disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 56, 411-417.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M., & Spitzer, R.L. (1989). Melancholia: from DSM-III to DSM-III-R. American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 20-28.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zitman, F.G. (1988). Neuroleptica bij angst, depressiviteit en onbegrepen lichamelijke klachten. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 132, 1380-1383.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zito, J.M., Volavka, J., Craig, T.J., et al. (1993). Pharmacoepidemiology of clozapine in 202 inpatients with schizophrenia. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 27, 1262-1269.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zohar, J., Judge, R., & the OCD paroxetine study investigators (1996). Paroxetine versus clomipramine in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 468-474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. www.bsl.nl/shop/directieve-therapie-0167-238x.html

    Willem van den Burg

Authors
  1. Willem van den Burg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Additional information

dr. W. van den Burg is werkzaam als universitair docent en onderzoeker bij de Afdeling Neuropsychologie van de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Zijn onderwijs en onderzoek betreffen neuropsychologie, methodologie/statistiek, en biologische psychiatrie, momenteel in het bijzonder de werkzaamheid van psychofarmaca.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

van den Burg, W. De (in)effectiviteit van psychofarmaca. DITH 18, 1–30 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03060189

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03060189

Search

Navigation