Abstract
This article reviews the research and clinical literature that has investigated the topography and functions of eye-to-face gaze in normal children and adults. These data and data from a recent pilot study are then compared to the criteria typically used in eye-contact training programs with autistic children. This comparison reveals some educationally relevant discrepancies between the normative data and the training criteria. The need to base educational interventions for autistic individuals on normative standards is discussed, and suggestions for future research are provided.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Als, H. (1977, Spring). The newborn communicates.Journal of Communication, 66–73.
Argyle, M. (1967).The psychology of interpersonal behavior. Baltimore: Penguin.
Argyle, M. (1972). Non-verbal communication in human social interaction. In R. Hinde (Ed.),Non-verbal communication. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Argyle, M., & Cook, M. (1976).Gaze and mutual gaze. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Argyle, M., & Dean, J. (1965). Eye-contact, distance, and affiliation.Sociometry, 28, 289–304.
Argyle, M., & Ingham, R. (1972). Gaze, mutual gaze, and proximity.Semiotica, 6, 32–49.
Argyle, M., Ingham, R., Alkema, F., & McCallin, M. (1973). The different functions of gaze.Semiotica, 7, 19–32.
Ashear, V., & Snortum, J. R. (1971). Eye contact in children as a function of age, sex, social, and intellective variables.Developmental Psychology, 4(3), 479.
Berler, R. E., Gross, A. M., & Drabman, R. S. (1982). Social skills training with children: Proceed with caution.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 15, 41–54.
Blake, P., & Moss, T. (1967). The development of socialization skills in an electively mute child.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 349–356.
Coutts, L. M., & Schneider, F. W. (1975). Visual behavior in an unfocused interaction as a function of sex and distance.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 11, 64–77.
Donnellan-Walsh, A., Gossage, L., LaVigna, G., Schuler, A., &Traphagen, J. (1976).Teaching makes a difference. Sacramento: California State Department of Education.
Exline, R. V. (1963). Explorations in the process of person perception: Visual interaction in relation to competition, sex, and need for affiliation.Journal of Personality, 31, 1–20.
Exline, R. V., & Fehr, B. J. (1978). Applications of semiosis to the study of visual interaction. In A. W. Siegman & S. Feldstein (Eds.),Nonverbal behavior and communication. New York: Wiley.
Exline, R. V., Gray, D., & Schuette, D. (1965). Visual behavior in a dyad as affected by interview content and sex of respondent.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1, 201–209.
Exline, R. V., & Winters, L. C. (1965). Affective relations and mutual glances in dyads. In S. S. Tomkins & C. E. Izard (Eds.),Affect, cognition, and personality. New York: Springer.
Fay, W. H., & Schuler, A. L. (1980).Emerging language in autistic children. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Foxx, R. M. (1977). Attention training: The use of overcorrection avoidance to increase the eye contact of autistic and retarded children.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 489–499.
Gable, R. A., Hendrickson, J. M., & Strain, P. D. (1978). Assessment, modification, and generalization of social interaction among severely retarded, multihandicapped children.Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 13, 279–286.
Harris, S. L. (1975). Teaching language to nonverbal children — With emphasis on problems of generalization.Psychological Bulletin, 82(4), 565–580.
Hermelin, B., & O'Connor, N. (1964). Effects of sensory impact and sensory dominance on severely disturbed autistic children and subnormal controls.British Journal of Psychology, 55, 201–206.
Hewett, F. M. (1965). Teaching speech to an autistic child through operant conditioning.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 35, 927–936.
Howlin, P. (1978). The assessment of social behavior. In M. Rutter & E. Schopler (Eds.),Autism: A reappraisal of concepts and treatment (pp. 63–69) New York: Plenum Press.
Hutt, C., & Ounsted, C. (1966). The biological significance of gaze aversion with particular reference to the syndrome of infantile autism.Behavioral Science, 11, 346–356.
Jaffe, J., Stern, D. N., & Peery, J. C. (1973). “Conversational” coupling of gaze behavior in prelinguistic human development.Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 2, 321–329.
Kendon, A. (1967). Some functions of gaze-direction in social interaction.Acta Psychologica, 26, 22–63.
Kleck, R. E., & Nuessle, W. (1968). Congruence between the indicative and communicative functions of eye contact in interpersonal relationships.British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 241–246.
Knapp, M. L. (1980).Essentials of nonverbal communication. New York: Holt, Rinehard and Winston.
Kozloff, M. A. (1974).Educating children with learning and behavior problems. New York: Wiley.
Levine, M. H., & Sutton-Smith, B. (1973). Effects of age, sex, and task on visual behavior during dyadic interaction.Developmental Psychology, 9(3), 400–405.
Lovaas, O. I. (1977).The autistic child. New York: Irvington.
Lovaas, O. I., Berberich, J. P., Perloff, B. F., & Schaeffer, B. (1966). Acquisition of imitative speech by schizophrenic children.Science 151, 705–707.
McConnell, O. L. (1967). Control of eye contact in an autistic child.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 8, 249–255.
McCulloch, M. J., & Williams, L. (1971). On the nature of infantile autism.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 47, 295–314.
Mehrabian, A. (1972).Nonverbal communication. Chicago: Aldine-Atherton.
Mirenda, P. L. (1982).A comparison of eye-to-face gaze in normal and autistic children. Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Mobbs, N. A. (1968). Eye contact in relation to social introversion/extraversion.British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 7, 305–306.
O'Connor, N., & Hermelin, B. (1967). The selective visual attention of psychotic children.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 8, 167–179.
Ornitz, E. M. (1973). Childhood autism: A review of the clinical and experimental literature.California Medicine, 118, 21–47.
Reimer, M. D. (1949). The averted gaze.Psychiatric Quarterly, 23, 108–115.
Richer, J. (1978). A partial noncommunication of culture to autistic children: An application of human ethology. In M. Rutter & E. Schopler (Eds.),Autism: A reappraisal of concepts and treatment (pp. 47–61). New York: Plenum Press.
Richer, J., & Coss, R. (1976). Gaze aversion in autistic and normal children.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 53, 193–210.
Ricks, D. M., & Wing, L. (1976). Language, communication and the use of symbols. In L. Wing, (Ed.),Early childhood autism (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon Press.
Risley, T. R. (1968). The effects and side effects of punishing the autistic behaviors of a deviant child.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 21–34.
Robson, K. S. (1967). The role of eye-to-eye contact in maternal-infant attachment.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 8, 13–25.
Rutter, M. (1978). Diagnosis and definition. In M. Rutter & E. Schopler (Eds.),Autism: A reappraisal of concepts and treatment (pp. 1–25). New York: Plenum Press.
Schulze, R., & Barefoot, J. (1974). Non-verbal responses and affiliative conflict theory.British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 13, 237–243.
Sommer, R. (1969).Personal space. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Strain, P. S., & Shores, R. E. (1977). Social reciprocity: A review of research and educational implications.Exceptional Children, 43(8), 526–530.
Tinbergen, E. A., & Tinbergen, N. (1972). Early childhood autism: An ethological approach.Advances in ethology. Journal of Comparative Ethology Supplement No. 10. Berlin: Paul Perry.
Vine, I. (1973). The role of facial-visual signalling in early social development. In M. Von Cranach & I. Vine (Eds.),Social communication and movement. New York: Academic Press.
White, B. L. (1975).The first three years of life. New York: Avon Books.
Wing, L. (Ed.) (1976).Early childhood autism (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon Press.
Wing, L. (1978). Social, behavioral, and cognitive characteristics: An epidemiological approach. In M. Rutter & E. Schopler (Eds.),Autism: A reappraisal of concepts and treatment (pp. 27–45). New York: Plenum Press.
Wolff, P. H. (1963). Observations on the early development of smiling. In B. M. Foss (Ed.),Determinants of infant behaviour (Vol. 2). London: Methuen.
Wolff, S., & Chess, S. (1964). A behavioral study of schizophrenic children.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 40, 438–466.
Woolman, D. H. (1980). A presymbolic training program. In R. L. Schiefelbusch (Ed.),Nonspeech language and communication. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This research was supported in part by Contract No. 300-81-0355 to the University of Wisconsin-Madison in conjunction with the Madison Metropolitan School District by the Department of Education, Office of Special Education, Division of Innovation and Development, Washington, D.C. The authors are grateful to D. Jeffery higginbotham for his comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript, and to Jeanne Connors for her assistance in its preparation.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mirenda, P.L., Donnellan, A.M. & Yoder, D.E. Gaze behavior: A new look at an old problem. J Autism Dev Disord 13, 397–409 (1983). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01531588
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01531588