Abstract
Children's responses to interadult arguments were examined as a function of three forms of disputes: covert, verbal, and physical. Four- to seven-year-olds' overt-behavioral responses to liveenactments of arguments between a male and a female were videotaped and coded for behavioral distress and anger/aggression, and children were then interviewed. Although children exhibited overt-behavioral distress in response to all forms of disputes, physical arguments evoked the highest levels of distress. Some gender differences in responding were observed. In comparison to boys, girls exhibited more overt distress during the arguments, and wanted to stop physical arguments more frequently. The results extend findings based on the videotape methodology of the presentation of interadult arguments indicating that form of anger expression impacts children's emotional responding to interadult conflict.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (1991).Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 Profile. Burlington, University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.
Ballard, M., & Cummings, E. M. (1990). Response to adults' angry behavior in children of alcoholic and nonalcoholic parents.Journal of Genetic Psychology, 151 195–209.
Ballard, M. E., Cummings, E. M., & Larkin, K. (1993). Emotional and cardiovascular responses to adults' angry behavior and to challenging tasks in children of hypertensive and normotensive parents.Child Development, 64 500–515.
Cummings, E. M. (1987). Coping with background anger in early childhood.Child Development, 58, 976–984.
Cummings, E. M., Ballard, M., & El-Sheikh, M. (1991). Responses of children and adolescents to interadult anger as a function of gender, age, and mode of expression.Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 543–560.
Cummings, E. M., Ballard, M., El-Sheikh, M., & Lake, M. (1991). Resolution and children's responses to interadult anger.Developmental Psychology, 27 462–470.
Cummings, E. M., & Cummings, J. L. (1988). A process-oriented approach to children's coping with adults' angry behavior.Developmental Review, 8 296–321.
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1994).Children and marital conflict: The impact of family dispute and resolution. New York: Guilford Press.
Cummings, E. M., Davies, P. T., & Simpson, K. S. (1994). Marital conflict, gender, and children's appraisals and coping efficacy as mediators of child adjustment.Journal of Family Psychology, 8 141–149.
Cummings, E. M., & El-Sheikh, M. (1991). Children's coping with angry environments: A process-oriented approach. In M. Cummings, A. L. Green, & K. H. Karraker (Eds.),Life-span developmental psychology: Perspectives on stress and coping (pp. 131–150). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cummings, E. M., Hennessy, K. D., Rabideau, G. J., & Cicchetti, D. (1994). Responses of physically abused boys to interadult anger involving their mothers.Development and Psychopathology, 6 31–41.
Cummings, E. M., Iannotti, R. J., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1985). Influence of conflict between adults on the emotions and aggression of young children.Developmental Psychology, 21 495–507.
Cummings, E. M., Vogel, D., Cummings, J. S., & El-Sheikh, M. (1989). Children's responses to different forms of expression of anger between adults.Child Development, 60, 1392–1404.
Cummings, E. M., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1984). Developmental changes in children's reactions to anger in the home.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 25, 63–74.
Cummings, J. S., Pellegrini, D. S., Notarius, C. I., & Cummings, E. M. (1989). Children's responses to angry adult behavior as a function of marital distress and history of interparent hostility.Child Development, 60 1035–1043.
Davies, P. T., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Marital conflict and child adjustment: An emotional security hypothesis.Psychological Bulletin, 116 387–411.
Dunn, J. F., & Munn, P. (1985). Becoming a family member: Family conflict and the development of social understanding in the second year. Special Issue: Family development.Child Development, 56 480–492.
El-Sheikh, M. (1994). Children's emotional and physiological responses to interadult angry behavior: The role of history of interparental hostility.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22 661–678.
El-Sheikh, M. (1995). Children's Responding to Adult—Adult and Mother—Child Arguments: The role of Parental Marital Conflict and Distress.Journal of Family Psychology.
El-Sheikh, M., Ballard, M., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Individual differences in preschoolers' physiological and verbal responses to videotaped angry interactions.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22 303–320.
El-Sheikh, M., & Cheskes, J. (1995). Background verbal and physical anger: A comparison of children's responses to adult—adult and adult—child arguments.Child Development, 66 446–458.
El-Sheikh, M., & Cummings, E. M. (1992). Availability of control and preschoolers' responses to interadult anger.International Journal of Behavioral Development, 15 207–226.
El-Sheikh, M., & Cummings, E. M. (1995). Children's responses to angry adult behavior as a function of experimentally manipulated exposure to resolved and unresolved conflict.Social Development, 4 75–91.
El-Sheikh, M., Cummings, E. M., & Goetsch, V. L. (1989). Coping with adults' angry behavior: Behavioral, physiological, and verbal responses in preschoolers.Developmental Psychology, 25 490–489.
El-Sheikh, M., Cummings, E. M., & Reiter, S. (1995).Preschoolers' responses to interadult conflict: The role of experimentally manipulated exposure to resolved and unresolved arguments. Unpublished Manuscript.
Emery, R. E. (1982). Interparental conflict and the children of discord and divorce.Psychological Bulletin, 92, 310–330.
Fantuzzo, J. W., DePaola, L, M., Lambert, L., Martino, T., Anderson, G., & Sutton, S. (1991). Effects of interparental violence on the psychological adjustment and competencies of young children.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59 258–265.
Fincham, F. D., Grych, J. H., & Osborne, L. N. (1994). Does marital conflict cause child maladjustment? Directions and challenges for longitudinal research.Journal of Family Psychology, 8 128–140.
Fincham, F. D., & Osborne, L. N. (1993). Marital conflict and children: Retrospect and prospect.Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 75–88.
Giacoletti, A. (1990).Children's behavioral and affective response to parental discord. Unpublished master's thesis. West Virginia University, Morgantown.
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children's adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework.Psychological Bulletin, 108 267–290.
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1993). Children's appraisals of marital conflict: Initial investigations of the cognitive-contextual framework.Child Development, 64 215–230.
Hennessy, K. D., Rabideau, G. J., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Responses of physically abused and nonabused children to different forms of interadult anger.Child Development, 65, 815–828.
Hetherington, E. M., Cox, M., & Cox, R. (1982). Effects of divorce on parents and children. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.),Nontraditional families. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Hollingshead, A. B. (1975).Four factor index of social status. Unpublished manuscript.
Hughes, H. (1988). Psychological and behavioral correlates of family violence in child witnesses and victims.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 6, 81–103.
Jouriles, E. N., Barling, J., & O'Leary, K. D. (1987). Predicting child behavior problems in maritally violent families.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15 165–173.
Jouriles, E. N., Murphy, C. M., & O'Leary, K. D. (1989). Interspousal aggression, marital discord, and child problems.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57 453–455.
Klaczynski, P. A., & Cummings, E. M. (1989). Responding to anger in aggressive and nonaggressive boys: A research note.Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 309–314.
Knutson, J. F., Schartz, H. A., & Zaidi, L. V. (1991). Victim risk factors in the physical abuse of children. In R. Baenninger (Ed.),Targets of violence and aggression. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Locke, H. J., & Wallace, K. M. (1959). Short marital-adjustment and prediction tests: Their reliability and validity.Marriage and Family Living, 21 251–255.
McDonald, R., & Jouriles, E. N. (1991). Marital aggression and child behavior problems: Research findings, mechanisms, and intervention strategies.The Behavior Therapist, 14 189–192.
O'Brien, M., Margolin, G., John, R. S., & Krueger, L. (1991). Mothers' and sons' cognitive and emotional reactions to simulated marital and family conflict.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59 692–703.
Reid, W. J., & Crisafulli, A. (1990). Marital discord and child behavior problems: A meta-analysis.Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 18 105–117.
Rutter, M. (1994). Family discord and conduct disorder: Cause, consequence, or correlate?Journal of Family Psychology, 8 170–186.
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales.Journal of Marriage and the Family, 41 75–88.
Straus, M. A., & Gelles, R. J. (1988). How violent are American families? Estimates from the national family violence resurvey and other studies. In R. Hotaling, D. Finkelhor, J. T. Kirkpatrick, & M. Straus (Eds.),Family abuse and its consequences: New directions in research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Wolfe, D. A. (1985). Child abusive parents: An empirical review and analysis.Psychological Bulletin, 97 462–487.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
We wish to thank the families for contributing their time and effort to this study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
El-Sheikh, M., Reiter, S.L. Children's responding to live interadult conflict: The role of form of anger expression. J Abnorm Child Psychol 24, 401–415 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01441564
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01441564