Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A multidimensional, hierarchical model of self-concept: Theoretical and empirical justification

  • Published:
Educational Psychology Review Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The self-concept construct is one of the oldest in psychology and is used widely in many disciplines. Despite its popularity, reviews prior to the 1980s typically emphasized the lack of theoretical basis in most studies, the poor quality of measurement instruments, methodological shortcomings, and a general lack of consistent findings except, perhaps, support for the null hypothesis. This situation called into question the usefulness of the self-concept construct. In dramatic contrast, the last decade has seen considerable progress in theory, measurement, and research. This progress is due at least in part to a stronger emphasis on a multidimensional self-concept instead of global measures of self. The purpose of this invited review is to summarize how my self-concept research has contributed to these advances. This review further substantiates the claim that self-concept cannot be understood adequately if its multidimensionality is ignored, and recommends that researchers use well-constructed multidimensional measures of self-concept instead of relying solely on global measures of self.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alwin, D. F., and Otto, L. B. (1977). High school context effects on aspirations.Sociol. Educat. 50: 259–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antill, J. K., and Cunningham, J. D. (1979). Self-esteem as a function of masculinity in both sexes.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 47: 783–785.

    Google Scholar 

  • Antill, J. K., Cunningham, J. D., Russell, G., and Thompson, N. L. (1981). An Australian sex-role.Austral. J. Psychol. 33: 169–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachman, J. G. (1970).Youth in Transition, Vol. 2: The Impact of Family Background and Intelligence on Tenth-Grade Boys, Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachman, J. G., and O'Malley, P. M. (1977). Self-esteem in young men: A longitudinal analysis of the impact of educational and occupational attainment.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 35: 365–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bachman, J. G., and O'Malley, P. M. (1986). Self-concepts, self-esteem, and educational experiences: The frogpond revisited (again).J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 50: 33–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986).Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-Tal, D. (1978). Attributional analysis of achievement-related behavior.Rev. Educat. Res. 48: 259–271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny.J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 42: 155–162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boersma, F. J., and Chapman, J. W. (1979).Student's Perception of Ability Scale Manual University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, G. W. (1978). Self-serving biases in the attribution processes: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 36: 56–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brookover, W. B. (1962).Self-Concept of Ability Scale Educational Publication Services, East Lansing, Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brookover, W. B. (1989).Self-Concept of Ability Scale — A Review and Further Analysis, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.

  • Brookover, W. B., and Erikson, E. L. (1975).Sociology of Education Dorsey Press, Homewood, Illinois.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burns, R. B. (1979).The Self-Concept: Theory, Measurement, Development and Behaviour Longman, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (1984). The general/academic self-concept nomological network: A review of construct validation research.Rev. Educat. Res. 54: 427–456.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byrne, B. M. (1986). Self-concept/academic achievement relations: An investigation of dimensionality, stability, and causality.Canad. J. Behav. Sci. 18: 173–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T., and Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.Psychol. Bull. 56: 81–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calsyn, R., and Kenny, D. (1977). Self-concept of ability and perceived evaluations by others: Cause or effect of academic achievement?J. Educat. Psychol. 69: 136–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantinople, A. (1973). Masculinity-femininity: An exception to a famous dictum?Psychol. Bull. 80: 389–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, E. P. (1985).Psychological Androgyny Pergamon, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coombs, A., Soper, D., and Courson, C. (1963). The measurement of self-concept and self report.Educat. Psychol. Meas. 23: 493–500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coopersmith, S. A. (1967).The Antecedents of Self-Esteem W. H. Freeman, San Francisco.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covington, M. V. (1984). The motive of self-worth. In Ames, R. E. and Ames, C. (eds.),Research on Motivation in Education, Vol. 1, Academic Press, Orlando, Florida, pp. 78–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Covington, M. V., and Omelich, C. L. (1979). Are causal attributions causal? A path analysis of the cognitive model of achievement motivation.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 37: 1487–1504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crandall, R. (1973). The measurement of self-esteem and related constructs. In Robinson, J., and Shaver, P. (eds.),Measures of Social Psychological Attitudes, Institute for Social Research, Ann Arbor, Michigan, pp. 45–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, J. A. (1966). The campus as a frog pond: An application of theory of relative deprivation to career decisions for college men.Am. J. Sociol. 72: 17–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dusek, J. B., and Flaherty, J. F. (1981). The development of self-concept during adolescent years.Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46 (4, serial no. 191).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, J. S., and Courtney, B. E. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: II: Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 46: 404–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Godfrey, R. (1974).A Review of Research and Evaluation Literature on Outward Bound and Related Educational Programs Colorado Outward Bound School, Denver, Colorado.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. A., and Taylor, M. C. (1985). Psychological androgony and the masculinity × femininity interaction.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 49: 429–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansford, B. C., and Hattie, J. A. (1982). The relationship between self and achievement/performance measures.Rev. Educat. Res. 52: 123–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1982). The perceived competence scale for children.Child Devel. 53: 87–97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1983). Developmental perspectives on the self-system. In Mussen, P. H. (ed.),Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. IV, 4th ed., Wiley, New York, pp. 275–385.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1985). Processes underlying the construction, maintenance, and enhancement of the self-concept in children. In Suls, J., and Greenwald, A. G. (eds.),The Development of Self Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 137–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S., and Pike, R. (1984). The pictorial scale of perceived competence and social acceptance for young children.Child Devel. 55: 1969–1982.

    Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, E. T., Klein, R., and Strauman, T. (1985). Self-concept discrepancy theory: A psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety.Soc. Cognit. 3: 51–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoge, D. R., and McCarthy, J. D. (1984). Influence of individual and group identity salience in the global self-esteem of youth.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 47: 403–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1890/1963).The Principles of Psychology Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jerusalem, M. (1984). Reference group, learning environment and self-evaluations: A dynamic multi-level analysis with latent variables. In Schwarzer, R. (ed.),The Self in Anxiety, Stress and Depression Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, pp. 61–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joreskog, K. G., and Sorbom, D. (1988).LISREL 7: A Guide to the Program and Applications SPSS, Inc., Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kulik, C. L. (1985).Effects of Inter-Class Ability Grouping on Achievement and Self-Esteem, Paper presented at the 1985 Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.

  • Kulik, C. L., and Kulik, J. A. (1982). Effects of ability grouping on secondary school students: A meta-analysis of evaluation findings.Am. Educat. Res. J. 21: 799–806.

    Google Scholar 

  • Markus, H., and Wurf, E. (1987). The dynamic self-cocnept: A social psychological perspective.Ann. Rev. Psychol. 38: 299–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1984a). Relationships among dimensions of self-attribution, dimensions of self-concept, and academic achievements.J. Educat. Psychol. 76: 1291–1308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1984b). Self-concept, social comparison and ability grouping: A reply to Kulik and Kulik.Am. Educat. Res. J. 21: 799–806.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1984c). Self-concept: The application of a frame of reference model to explain paradoxical results.Austral. J. Educat. 28: 165–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1985). The structure of masculinity/femininity: An application of confirmatory factor analysis to higher-order factor structures and factorial invariance.Multivar. Behav. Res. 20: 427–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1986a). The bias of negatively worded items in rating scales for young children: A cognitive-developmental phenomena.Devel. Psychol. 22: 37–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1986b). Global self esteem: Its relation to specific facets of self-concept and their importance.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 51: 1224–1236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1986c). The self-serving effect (bias?) in academic attributions: Its relation to academic achievement and self-concept.J. Educat. Psychol. 78: 190–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1986d). Verbal and math self-concepts: An internal/external frame of reference model.Am. Educat. Res. J. 23: 129–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1987a). The big-fish-little-pond effect on academic self-concept.J. Educat. Psychol. 79: 280–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1987b). The hierarchical structure of self-concept and the application of hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis.J. Educat. Meas. 24: 17–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1987c). Masculinity, femininity and androgyny: Their relations to multiple dimensions of self-concept.Multivar. Behav. Res. 22: 91–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1988a). Causal effects of academic self-concept on academic achievement: A reanalysis of Newman (1984).J. Exper. Educat. 56: 100–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1988b). Multitrait-multimethod analyses. In Keeves, J. P. (ed.),Educational Research Methodology, Measurement and Evaluation: An International Handbook Pergamon Press, Oxford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1988c).Self-Description Questionnaire: A Theoretical and Empirical Basis for the Measurement of Multiple Dimensions of Preadolescent Self-Concept: A Test Manual and a Research Monograph The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, Texas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1989a). Age and sex effect in multiple dimensions of self-concept: Preadolescence to early-adulthood.J. Educat. Psychol. 81: 417–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (1989b).The Failure of Academically Selective High Schools to Deliver Academic Benefits: The Importance of Academic Self-Concept and Educational Aspirations, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.

  • Marsh, H. W. (1990). The influence of internal and external frames of reference on the formation of English and math self-concepts.J. Educat. Psychol. 82:107–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W. (in press a). The causal ordering of academic self-concept and academic achievement: A multiwave, longitudinal panelanalysisJ. Educat. Psychol.

  • Marsh, H. W. (in press b).Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) II:A Theoretical and Empirical Basis for the Measurement of Multiple Dimensions of Adolescent Self-Concept: An Interim Test Manual and a Research Monograph, The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, Texas.

  • Marsh, H. W. (in press c).Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ) III: A Theoretical and Empirical Basis for the Measurement of Multiple Dimensions of Late Adolescent Self-Concept: An Interim Test Manual and a Research Monograph, The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, Texas.

  • Marsh, H. W. (in press d). The structure of academic self-concept: The Marsh/Sharelson model.J. Educat. Psychol.

  • Marsh, H. W., Antill, J. K., and Cunningham, J. D. (1987). Masculinity, femininity and androgyny: Relations to self esteem and social desirability.J. Personal. 55: 661–685.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Barnes, J., Cairns, L., and Tidman, M. (1984a). The Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ): Age effects in the structure and level of self-concept for preadolescent children.J. Educat. Psychol. 76: 940–956.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Barnes, J., and Hocevar, D. (1985). Self-other agreement on multidimensional self-concept ratings: Factor analysis and multitrait-multimethod analysis.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 49: 1360–1377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Byrne, B. M. (1989). Do we see ourselves as others infer: Self-other agreement on multiple dimensions of self-concept. (Paper in review).

  • Marsh, H. W., Byrne, B. M., and Shavelson, R. (1988). A multifaceted academic self-concept: Its hierarchical structure and its relation to academic achievement.J. Educat. Psychol. 80: 366–380.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Cairns, L., Relich, J. D., Barnes, J., and Debus, R. (1984b). The relationship between dimensions of self-attribution and dimensions of self-concept.J. Educat. Psychol. 76: 3–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Gouvernet, P. (1989). Multidimensional self-concepts and perceptions of control: Construct validation of responses by children.J. Educat. Psychol. 81: 57–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Hocevar, D. (1985). The application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First and higher order factor structures and their invariance across age groups.Psychol. Bull. 97: 562–582.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Jackson, S. (1986). Multidimensional self-concepts, masculinity and femininity as a function of women's involvement in athletics.Sex Roles 15: 391–416.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and MacDonald-Holmes, I. W. (1990). Multidimensional self-concepts: Construct validation of responses by children.Am. Educat. Res. J. (in press).

  • Marsh, H. W., and Myers, M. R. (1986). Masculinity, femininity, and androgyny: A methodological and theoretical critique.Sex Roles 14: 397–430.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and O'Neill, R. (1984). Self-Description Questionnaire III (SDQ III): The construct validity of multidimensional self-concept ratings by late-adolescents.J. Educat. Meas. 21: 153–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Parker, J. W. (1984). Determinants of self-concept: Is it better to be a relatively large fish in a small pond even if you don't learn to swim as well.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 47: 213–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Peart, N. (1988). Competitive and cooperative physical fitness training programs for girls: Effects on physical fitness and on multidimensional self-concepts.J. Sport Exer. Psychol. 10: 390–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Relich, J. D., and Smith, I. D. (1983). Self-concept: The construct validity of interpretations based upon the SDQ.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 45: 173–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Richards, G. E. (1987). The multidimensionality of the Rotter I-E Scale and its higher-order structure: An application of confirmatory factor analysis.Multivar. Behav. Res. 22: 39–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Richards, G. (1988). The Outward Bound Bridging Course for low achieving high-school males: Effect on academic achievement and multidimensional self-concepts.Austral. J. Psychol. 40: 281–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Richards, G., and Barnes, J. (1986a). Multidimensional self-concepts: A longterm followup of the effect of participation in an Outward Bound program.Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 12: 475–492.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Richards, G., and Barnes, J. (1986b). Multidimensional self-concepts: The effect of participation in an Outward Bound program.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 45: 173–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., and Sharelson, R. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure.Educat. Psychologist 20: 107–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Smith, I. D., and barnes, J. (1984). Multidimensional self-concepts: Relationships with inferred self-concepts and academic achievement.Austral. J. Psychol. 36: 367–386.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsh, H. W., Smith, I. D., Barnes, J., and Butler, S. (1983). Self-concept: Reliability, dimensionality, validity, and the measurement of change.J. Educat. Psychol. 75: 772–790.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marx, R. W., and Winne, P. H. (1978). Construct interpretations of three self-concept inventories.Am. Educat. Res. J. 15: 99–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • McClelland, D. C. (1965). Toward a theory of motive acquisition.Am. Psychol. 20: 321–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, D. T., and Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction?Psychol. Bull. 82: 213–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyamoto, S. F., and Dornbusch, S. (1956). A test of interactionist hypotheses of self-conception.Am. J. Sociol. 15: 399–403.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholls, J. (1979). Development of perception of attainment and causal attributions for success and failure in reading.J. Educat. Psychol. 71: 94–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, R. S. (1980). Alleviating learned helplessness in a wilderness setting: An application of attribution theory to Outward Bound. In Fyans, L. J. (ed.),Achievement Motivation: Recent Trends in Theory and Research Plenum Press, New York, pp. 312–345.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, R. S. (1984). Children's achievement and self-evaluations in mathematics: A longitudinal study.J. Educat. Psychol. 76: 857–873.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norwich, B. (1987). Self-efficacy and mathematics achievement: A study of their relation.J. Educat. Psychol. 79: 384–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Malley, P. M., and Bachman, J. G. (1983). Self-esteem: Change and stability between ages 13 and 23.Dev. Psychol. 19: 257–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Relich, J. D. (1983).Attribution and Its Relation to Other Affective Variables in Predicting and Inducing Arithmetic Achievement: An Attributional Approach to Increased Self-Efficacy and Achievement in Arithmetic, Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reuman, D. A. (1989). How social comparison mediates the relation between ability-grouping practices and students' achievement expectancies in mathematics.J. Educat. Psychol. 81: 178–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Riess, M., Rosenfield, P., Melburg, V., and Tedeschi, J. T. (1981). Self-serving attributions: Biased private perceptions and distorted public dispositions.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 41: 224–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, G. E. (1977).Some Educational Implications and Contributions of Outward Bound Australian Outward Bound Foundation, Sydney, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, G. E., and Richards, M. J. F. (1981).Outward Bound Bridging Course 1981 Australian Outward Bound Foundation, Sydney, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, C. M., Smith, M. D., and Coleman, J. M. (1978). Social comparison in the classroom: The relationship between academic achievement and self-concept.J. Educat. Psychol. 70: 50–57.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogosa, D. (1979). Causal models in longitudinal research: Rationale, formulation, and interpretation. In Nesselroade, J. R., and Baltes, P. B. (eds.),Longitudinal Research in the Study of Behavior and Development Academic Press, New York, pp. 263–302.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965).Society and the Adolescent Child Princeton University, Princeton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1979).Conceiving the Self Basic Books, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.Psychol. Monographs. 80 (whole no. 609).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruble, D. N. (1983). The development of social comparison processes and their role in achievement-related self-socialization. In Higgins, E. T., Ruble, D., and Hartup, W. W. (eds.),Social Cognition and Social Development Cambridge University Press, New York, pp. 134–157.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheirer, M. A., and Kraut, R. E. (1979). increasing educational achievement via self-concept change.Rev. Educat. Res. 49: 131–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, B. H., Clegg, M. R., Byrne, B. M., Ledingham, J. E., and Crombie, G. (1989). Social relations of gifted children as a function of age and school program.J. Educat. Psychol. 81: 48–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H. (1985). Self-efficacy and classroom learning.Psychol. Schools 22: 208–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schunk, D. H. (1987).Domain Specific Measurement of Students' Self-Regulated Learning Processes, Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, D.C.

  • Schunk, D. H. (1989). Self-efficacy and cognitive skill learning. In Ames, C., and Ames, R. (eds.),Research on Motivation in Education, Vol. 3, Academic Press, New York, pp. 13–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarzer, R., Jerusalem, J., and Lange, B. (1983).The Change of Self-Concept with Respect to Reference Groups in School, Paper presented at the 1983 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal.

  • Sears, P. S. (1963).The Effect of Classroom Conditions on the Strength of Achievement Motive and Work Output of Elementary School Children,, Stanford University, Stanford, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shavelson, R. J., and Bolus, R. (1982). Self-concept: The interplay of theory and methods.J. Educat. Psychol. 74: 3–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shavelson, R. J., Hubner, J. J., and Stanton, G. C. (1976). Validation of construct interpretations.Rev. Educat. Res. 46: 407–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shavelson, R. J., and Marsh, H. W. (1986). On the structure of self-concept. In Schwarzer, R. (ed.),Anxiety and Cognitions. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shibutani, T. (1961).Society and Personality Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shore, A. (1977).Outward Bound: A Reference Volume Outward Bound, Inc., Greenwich, Connecticut.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrauger, J. S., and Schoeneman, T. J. (1979). Symbolic interactionist view of self-concept: Through the glass darkly.Psychol. Bull. 86: 549–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silon, E. L., and Harter, S. (1985). Assessment of perceived competence, motivational orientation, and anxiety in segregated and mainstreamed educable mentally retarded children.J. Educat. Psychol. 77: 217–230.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. L., Gabriel, R., Schott, J., and Padia, W. L. (1975).Evaluation of the Effects of Outward Bound Bureau of Educational Field Services, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. E. (19). Effects of coping skills training on generalized self-efficacy and locus of control.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 56: 228–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soares, A. T., and Soares, L. M. (1979).The Affective Perception Inventory — Advanced Level ALSO, Trumbell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soares, L. M., and Soares, A. T. (1982).Convergence and Discrimination in Academic Self-Concepts, paper presented at the 20th Congress of the International Association of Applied Psychology, Edinburgh, Scotland.

  • Spence, J. T. (1984). Masculinity, femininity, and gender-related traits: A conceptual analysis and critique of current research. In Maehr, B. A., and Maehr, W. B. (eds.),Progress in Experimental Personality Research, Vol. 13, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D. J. (1981). Children's perceptions of their own and their classmates' ability.J. Educat. Psychol. 73: 404–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D. J. (1984). The development of achievement motivation. In Ames, R. E., and Ames, C. (eds.),Research on Motivation in Education, Vol. 1, Academic Press, Orlando, Florida, pp. 145–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D. J., and Daniels, D. H. (1988). Declining perceptions of competence: A consequence of changes in the children in the educational environment.J. Educat. Psychol. 80: 352–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D. J., and MacIver, D. (1989). Developmental change in children's assessment of intellectual competence.Child Develop. 60: 521–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stipek, D. J., and Weisz, J. R. (1981). Perceived personal control and academic achievement.Rev. Educat. Res. 51: 101–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strang, L., Smith, M. D., and Rogers, C. M. (1978). Social comparison, multiple reference groups and the self-concepts of academically handicapped children before and after mainstreaming.J. Educat. Psychol. 70: 487–497.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, M. C., and Hall, J. A. (1982). Psychological androgyny: A review and reformulation of theories, methods and conclusions.Psychol. Bull. 92: 347–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernon, P. E. (1950).The Structure of Human Abilities Methuen, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences.J. Educat. Psychol. 71: 3–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. (1980).Human Motivation Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wells, L. E., and Marwell, G. (1976).Self-Esteem: Its Conceptualization and Measurement Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, H. (1957). The concept of development from a comparative and organismic point of view. In Harris, D. B. (ed.),The Concept of Development University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, C. K., Fish, J. A., and Stevens, R. J. (1980). General self-concept, self-concept of academic ability, and school achievement: Implications for “causes” of self-concept.Austral. J. Educat. 24: 194–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, B. E. (1983). Sex role orientation and self-esteem: A critical meta-analytic review.J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 44: 765–778.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wylie, R. C. (1974).The Self-Concept rev. ed., Vol. 1, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wylie, R. C. (1979).The Self-Concept, Vol. 2, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M. (1979). Attribution of success and failure revisited, or: The motivational bias is alive and well in attribution theory.J. Personal. 47: 254–287.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Education, University of Western Sydney, Macarthur, PO Box 555, 2560, Campbelltown, New South Wales, Australia

    Herbert W. Marsh

Authors
  1. Herbert W. Marsh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Marsh, H.W. A multidimensional, hierarchical model of self-concept: Theoretical and empirical justification. Educ Psychol Rev 2, 77–172 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01322177

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01322177

Key words

Search

Navigation