Skip to main content
Log in

Ratio versus frequency scores: Focus of attention and the balance between positive and negative thoughts

  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Numerous conceptual and statistical difficulties complicate the use of raw thought frequencies in cognitive assessment. To overcome such problems, investigators have used a variety of ratio scores; however, these are not easily comparable across studies and their use evokes a variety of associated difficulties. Therefore, the present investigation compared results using raw frequencies and a variety of ratio scores on a cognitive assessment task where both the valence and the focus of attention of thoughts were examined. Scores evaluated included a positive/negative ratio as well as Schwartz's States of Mind (SOM) ratio [positive/(positive +negative)] with and without correction of zero frequencies of either positive or negative thoughts. Results indicate that (a) partitioning thoughts as a function of attentional focus (self, other, situation-focused thoughts) yield different frequencies and ratios for each thought type, (b) positive and negative thoughts are independent, (c) although different ratios and correlations are appropriate, depending on the nature of the assessment task, results using the SOM ratio with a correction factor most closely resemble results obtained when using frequencies, (d) when a positive/negative ratio is used, a correction factor and a log transformation reduce the effects of missing data and of positive skewness, and (e) the mean of subjects' SOM ratios and the ratio of subjects' mean frequencies yield similar results.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acton, R. G., & Cameron, R. (1985, November).Cognitive deficit in a stressful situation: Deficient repertoire or production failure? Paper presented at the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy annual convention.

  • Amsel, R., & Fichten, C. S. (1988). Effects of contact on thoughts about interaction with students who have a physical disability.Journal of Rehabilitation, 54 61–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, D. A. (1988). The validity of measures of cognition: A review of the literature.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 12 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales.Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20 37–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, G. (1986).Statistical analysis in psychology and education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fichten, C. S. (1986). Self, other and situation-referent automatic thoughts: Interaction between people who have a physical disability and those who do not.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10 571–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fichten, C. S., & Amsel, R. (1988). Thoughts concerning interaction between college students who have a physical disability and their nondisabled peers.Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 32 22–40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fichten, C. S., Amsel, R., & Robillard, K. (1988). Issues in cognitive assessment: Task difficulty, reactivity of measurement, thought listing vs. inventory approaches, sequences vs. frequency counts.Behavioral Assessment, 10 399–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fichten, C. S., Bourdon, C. V., Amsel, R., & Fox, L. (1987). Validation of the College Interaction Self-Efficacy Questionnaire: Students with and without disabilities.Journal of College Student Personnel, 28(5), 449–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fichten, C. S., & Martos, J. G. (1986). Cognition coding manual: Interaction between ablebodied and physically disabled people.Abstracted in Resources in Education, 21(5), 50–51. (Eric Document Reproduction Service, ED No. 264679)

    Google Scholar 

  • Fichten, C. S., Tagalakis, V., & Amsel, R. (in press). Effects of cognitive modeling affect and previous contact on attitudes, thoughts and feelings toward college students with physical disabilities.Journal of the Multihandicapped Person.

  • Galassi, J. P., Frierson, H. T., Jr., & Sharer, R. (1981a). Behavior of high, moderate and low test anxious students during an actual test situation.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49 51–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galassi, J. P., Frierson, H. T., Jr., & Sharer, R. (1981b). Concurrent versus retrospective assessment in test anxiety research.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49 614–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimberg, R. G., Acerra, M. C., & Holstein, A. (1985). Partner similarity mediates interpersonal anxiety.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9 443–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heimberg, R. G., Keller, K. E., & Peca-Baker, T. (1986). Cognitive assessment of social-evaluative anxiety in the job interview: Job Interview Self-Statement Schedule.Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33 190–195.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollandsworth, J. G., Glazeski, R. C., Kirkland, K., Jones, G. E., & VanNorman, L. R. (1979). Analysis of the nature and effects of test anxiety: Cognitive, behavioral, and psychophysiological components.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 3 165–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hope, D. A., Heimberg, R. G., Zollo, L., Nyman, D. J., & O'Brien, G. T. (1987).Thought listing in the natural environment: Valence and focus of listed thoughts among socially anxious and nonanxious subjects. Unpublished manuscript, State University of New York at Albany, presented at the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy annual convention, Boston.

  • Ingram, R. E., & Kendall, P. C. (1987). The cognitive side of anxiety.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11 523–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., & Wisnicki, K. S. (1988). Assessment of positive automatic cognition.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56 898–902.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C. (1984). Behavioral assessment and methodology. In G. T. Wilson, C. M. Franks, K. D. Brownell, & P. C. Kendall (Eds.),Annual review of behavior therapy: Theory and practice (Vol. 9, pp. 39–94). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C. & Hollon, S. D. (1981). Assessing self-referent speech: Methods in the measurement of self-statements. In P. C. Kendall & S. D. Hollon (Eds.),Assessment strategies for cognitive-behavioral interventions (pp. 85–118). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, P. C., & Ingram, R. (1987). The future for cognitive assessment: Let's get specific. In L. Michelson & L. M. Asher (Eds.),Anxiety and stress disorders: Cognitive-behavioral assessment and treatment (pp. 89–104). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kruskal, J. B. (1968). Special problems of statistical analyses II: Transformations of data. In D. L. Sills (Ed.),International encyclopedia of the social sciences (Vol. 15, pp. 182–193). New York: Macmillan and Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marchione, K. E., Michelson, L., Greenwald, M., & Dancu, C. (1987). Cognitive behavioral treatment of agoraphobia.Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25 319–328.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Missel, P., & Sommer, G. (1983). Depression and self-verbalization.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 7 141–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Myszka, M. T., Galassi, J. P., & Ware, W. (1986). Comparison of cognitive assessment methods with heterosocially anxious college women.Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33 401–407.

    Google Scholar 

  • O'Leary, K. D., & Kent, R. (1973). Behavior modification for social action: Research tactics and problems. In L. A. Hammerlynck, L. C. Handy, & E. J. Mash (Eds.),Behavior change methodology, concepts and practice (pp. 69–96). Champaign, IL: Research Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, R. M. (1986). The internal dialogue: On the asymmetry between positive and negative coping thoughts.Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10 591–605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, R. M., & Garamoni, G. L. (1986a). A structural model of positive and negative states of mind: Asymmetry in the internal dialogue. In P. C. Kendall (Ed.),Advances in cognitive-behavioral research and therapy (Vol. 5, pp. 1–62). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, R. M., & Garamoni, G. L. (1986b). Cognitive assessment: A multibehaviormultimethod-multiperspective approach.Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 8 185–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, R. M., & Garamoni, G. L. (1989). Cognitive balance and psychopathology: Evaluation of information processing model of positive and negative states of mind.Clinical Psychology Review, 9 271–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, R. M., & Gottman, J. (1976). Toward a task analysis of assertive behavior.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44 910–920.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, R. M., & Michelson, L. (1987). States-of-mind model: Cognitive balance in the treatment of agoraphobia.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55 557–565.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, J. E. K. (1976). Data transformation in analysis of variance.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15 339–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuker, H. E., Block, J., & Younng, J. (1970).The measurement of attitudes toward disabled persons. Albertson, NY: Human Resources Center.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Additional information

This research was funded by F.C.A.R. We would like to thank Jackie Cohen, John Martos, Sue McKenzie, Alan Ross, Soryl Soiferman, Vicki Tagalakis, and Valerie Turner, without whose assistance this study would not have been possible. We would also like to thank Robert Schwartz for his comments on an earlier version of this manuscript and for his valuable suggestions.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Amsel, R., Fichten, C.S. Ratio versus frequency scores: Focus of attention and the balance between positive and negative thoughts. Cogn Ther Res 14, 257–277 (1990). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01183996

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01183996

Key words

Navigation