Abstract
The state-dependent theory of the relationship between affective states and memory holds that recall will be best when the affective state at recall matches that during learning. Sequential happy, neutral, and sad affective states that were either consistent (e.g., Happy-Happy) or inconsistent (e.g., Sad-Neutral) were experimentally induced in preschool children prior to encoding and then again prior to retrieval (free and cued recall, recognition memory). Facial ratings indicated that the inductions were effective in inducing affect. Nevertheless, emotional states did not influence children's ability to recall items under free or cued conditions, and recognition memory was essentially perfect for all subjects. Thus, there was no evidence for state-dependent learning or for a “positive loop” between subjects' positive affect at retrieval and memory for positively rated information. Results are discussed in terms of the generally inconsistent findings in the literature on the role of affect in children's memory and factors that may limit affective state-dependent learning in children.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Barden, R. C., Garber, J., Duncan, S. W., & Masters, J. C. (1981). Cumulative effects of induced affective states in children: Accentuation, inoculation, and remediation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40 750–760.
Barden, R. C., Garber, J., Leiman, B., Ford, M. E., & Masters, J. C. (1985). Factors governing the effective remediation of negative affect and its cognitive and behavioral consequences.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49 1040–1053.
Barnett, M. A., King, L. M., & Howard, J. A. (1979). Inducing affect about self or other: Effects on generosity in children.Developmental Psychology, 15 164–167.
Bartlett, J., Burleson, G., & Santrock, J. W. (1983). Emotional mood and memory in young children.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 34 59–76.
Bartlett, J. C., & Santrock, J. W. (1979). Affect-dependent episodic memory in young children.Child Development, 50 513–518.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory.American Psychologist, 36 129–148.
Bower, G. H., Monteiro, K. P., & Gilligan, S. G. (1978). Emotional mood as a context for learning and recall.Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17 573–585.
Brown, A. L., Bransford, J. D., Ferrara, R. A., & Campione, J. C. (1983). Learning, remembering, and understanding. In P. H. Mussen (Gen. Ed., J. H. Flavell & E. M. Markman, Vol. Eds.),Handbook of child psychology: Vol. III: Cognitive development (pp. 77–166). New York: Wiley.
Brown, A. L., & DeLoache, J. S. (1978). Skills, plans, and self-regulation. In R. S. Siegler (Ed.).Children's thinking: What develops? (pp. 3–35). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Colpaert, F. C., & Rosecrans, J. A. (Eds.). (1978).Stimulus properties of drugs: Ten years of progress. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press.
Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., & Ellsworth, P. (1971).Emotion in the human face: Guidelines for research and integration of findings. New York: Pergamon Press.
Flavell, J. H., & Wellman, H. M. (1977). Metamemory. In R. V. Kail, Jr. & J. W. Hagen (Eds.),Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp. 3–33). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Harris, M. B., & Siebel, C. E. (1975). Affect, aggression, and altruism.Developmental Psychology, 11 623–627.
Isen, A. M. (in press). Affect, cognition, and social behavior. In R. Wyer & T. Srull (Eds.),Handbook of social cognition.
Isen, A. M. (1984). Affect, cognition, and social behavior. In R. Wyer & T. Srull (Eds.),Handbook of social cognition. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.ogy, 36, 1–12.
Istomina, Z. M. (1975). The development of voluntary memory in preschool-age children.Soviet Psychology, 13 5–64. (Original work published 1948).
Markman, E. M. (1981). Two different principles of conceptual organization.Advances in Developmental Psychology, 1 199–236.
Masters, J. C., Barden, R. C., & Ford, M. E. (1979). Affective states, expressive behavior, and learning in children.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37 380–390.
Moore, B. S., Underwood, B., & Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). Affect and altruism.Developmental Psychology, 8 99–104.
Nasby, W., & Yando, R. (1982). Selective encoding and retrieval of affectively valent information: Two cognitive consequences of children's mood states.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43 1244–1253.
Ornstein, P. A. (1978).Memory development in children. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Perlmutter, M., & Myers, N. A. (1979). Development of recall in 2-to 4-year-olds.Developmental Psychology, 15 78–83.
Reichenbach, L. C. (1984).Parental divorce: Affective experience and affective response. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Vanderbilt University.
Rosenhan, D. L., Underwood, B., & Moore, B. S. (1974). Affect moderates self-gratification and altruism.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30 546–552.
Siegler, R. S. (1978).Children's thinking: What develops? Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Teasdale, J. D., & Taylor, R. (1981). Induced mood and accessibility of memories: An effect of mood state or of induction procedure?British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20 39–48.
Todd, C. M., & Perlmutter, M. (1980). Reality recalled by preschool children. In M. Perlmutter (Ed.),New directions for child development: Children's memory (No. 10). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Underwood, B., Moore, B. S., & Rosenhan, D. L. (1973). Affect and self-gratification.Developmental Psychology, 8 209–214.
Weingartner, H. (1984). Psychobiological determinants of memory failures. In L. R. Squire & N. Butters (Eds.),Neuropsychology of memory (pp. 203–212). New York: Guilford Press.
Weingartner, H., Murphy, D. L., & Stillman, R. C. (1978). Mood state dependent learning. In F. C. Colpaert & J. A. Rosecrans (Eds.),Stimulus properties of drugs: Ten years of progress (pp. 445–453). Amsterdam: Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical Press.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This research was supported by Research Grant No. 11776 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to Marion Perlmutter, by Grant BNS 78-01108 from the National Science Foundation to John C. Masters, and by Program Project Grant No. 0527 to the Institute of Child Development. Wayne Duncan is now at the University of Denver, and Christine Todd is now at the University of Illinois, Urbana. Marion Perlmutter is now at the University of Michigan. We would like to thank Keith Elliott and LuAnne Tczap for their work as experimenters; Jule Kogan, Carol Revermann, and Sonya Hernandez for their help in coding data; and Jayne Grady-Reitan for her administrative assistance throughout the study.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Duncan, S.W., Todd, C.M., Perlmutter, M. et al. Affect and memory in young children. Motiv Emot 9, 391–405 (1985). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992208
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00992208