Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Qualitative Methods

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
International Handbook of Research in Medical Education

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE,volume 7))

Summary

In recent years there has been a methodological revolution in social science and educational research generally,and medical education as well,with increasing acceptance of qualitative research traditions and methods as part of our repertoire of inquiry approaches. There is a wide variety of threads interwoven under the rubric “qualitative methods ”. A common paradigmatic theme includes the epistemological and ontological view of knowledge as a human construction. Another common theme is reliance on collection,analysis, and interpretation of qualitative datasuch as observations in natural settings reported in field notes, interviews recorded in transcripts, and document analysis.Important areas of qualitative inquiry range from ethnography, which focuses on understanding phenomena such as clinical teaching through participant observation; to critical theory,which focuses on bringing to light power inequities in situations such as health care teams,with the goal of empowering participants to seek reform.

The purposes of this chapter are to: (1) characterize the place and nature of qualitative methods in social science and educational research; (2) provide an overview of the research traditions linked with qualitative inquiry in the social sciences and education generally — their characteristic questions,their methods and their criteria for soundness and rigor; (3) present a review and analysis of research in medical education linked with qualitative traditions or relying heavily on qualitative methods; and (4) suggest future directions for qualitative research methods in medical education. In this review, we will focus on research in medical education, rather than research in medicine,which is a vast area for review in its own right. Therefore,we will view as our domain the processes of selection for training,curriculum development,instruction, program evaluation,performance evaluation,and professional socialization.

We do not intend to present a survey of all qualitative research in medical education,but rather an analysis of exemplars illustrating applications of qualitative methods. This review will be organized by the subject-matter focus of the research because, to date, certain issues have been the subject of the greatest number of qualitative studies,perhaps due to the nature of the questions raised and of the issues. This chapter is not intended as a “how to” manual;the complexity however, we will provide the canonical and classic references for the conduct of research methods discussed. The area ofqualitative methods has matured to the point of having an extensive and rich literature dealing with paradigm issues, guidelines for everyaspect of the use of specific methods, and standards for research qualityand rigor.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 429.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 549.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Agar, M. (1980).The professional stranger.New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altheide, D.L., & Johnson, J.V. (1994). Criteria for assessing interpretive validity in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 485–499). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ambrozy, D.M., Irby, D.M., Bowen, J.L., Burack, J.H., Carline, J.D.&Stritter, F. T.(1997). Role models’ perceptions of themselves and their influence on students’ specialty choices.Academic Medicine72 (12), 1119–1121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anyon, J. (1988). Social class and the hidden curriculum of work. In J. R. Gress & D. E. Purpel (Eds.)Curriculum: An introduction to the field(pp. 366–389). Berkeley: McCutchan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Apple, M. (1988). The culture and commerce of the textbook. In J. R. Gress & D. E. Purpel (Eds.)Curriculum: An introduction to the field(pp. 390–407).Berkeley: McCutchan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, P. (1992). The ethnography of a medical setting: Reading, writing, and rhetoric.Qualitative Health Research2, 451–474.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, P.&Hammersley, M.(1994).Ethnography and participant observation. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 248–261). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, S., & Goodson, I.(Eds.).(1985).Teachers’ lives and careers.London: Falmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1986).Social foundations of thought and action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barzansky, B., Berner, E., & Beckman, C. R.(1985).Evaluation of a clinical program: Applying the concept of trustworthiness.Evaluation and the Health Professions8(2), 193–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, H. S.(1958).Problems of inference and proof in participant observation.American Sociological Review23, 652–660. (Reprinted in G. J. McCall & J. L. Simmons (Eds.)Issues in participant observation: A text and readerpp. 652–660. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1969.)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, H. S., Geer, B., Hughs, E. C., & Strauss, A.(1961).The boys in white: Student culture in medical school.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, D., &Hughes, J.A.(1983).The perspective of ethnomethodology.London: Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berelson, B.(1952).Content analysis in communication research.Boston: Allyn Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergum, V.(1991).Being a phenomenological researcher. In J. M. Morse (Ed.)Qualitative nursing research: A contemporary dialogue(pp. 55–71).Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, B.(1968).Some theoretical issues relating to educational evaluation. In R. W. Tyler (Ed.)Educational evaluation: New means new roles(Sixty-sixth yearbook, Part II). (pp. 26–50). Chicago: National Society for the Study of Education.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, S. W.(1965).The sociology of medical education: Some comments on the state of a field.Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 43143–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bobbitt, J. F.(1972/1918).The curriculum.New York: Arno Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogdan, R. C., &Biklen, S. L.(1982).Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bosk, C.(1979).Forgive and remember: The management of medical failure.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burack, J. H., Irby, C. M., Carline, J. D., Ambrozy, D. M., Ellsbury, K. E., & Stritter, F. T.(1997).A study of medical students’ specialty-choice pathways: Trying on possible selves.Academic Medicine 72(6), 534–541.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burack, J. H., Irby, D. M., Carline, J. D., Root, R. K., & Larson, E. B.(1999).Teaching compassion and respect: Attending physicians’ responses to problematic behaviors. Journal of General Internal Medicine 14(1), 49–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bussigel, M., & Filling, C.(1985).Data discrepancies and their origins: An evaluation of a family practice residency program using a naturalistic inquiry paradigm.Evaluation and the Health Professions 8(2), 177–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T. (1974).Qualitative knowing in action research. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. D.(1966).Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research.Chicago: Rand McNally.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M.(1994).Personal experience methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 413–427). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colliver, J. A.(1996).Science in the postmodern era: postpositivism and research in medical education.Teaching and Learning in Medicine 8(1), 10–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colliver, J. A., & Verhulst, S. J.(1996).Medical research and qualitative methods: A rational approach.Academic Medicine 71(3), 211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cremin, L.(1963).The transformation of the schools.New York: Vintage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J.(1974). Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J.(1982).Designing evaluations of educational and social programs.San Francisco: JosseyBass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J., &Associates(1980).Toward reform of program evaluation.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J., & Suppes, P. (Eds.)(1969).Research for tomorrow’s schools.New York: Vintage Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darling-Hammond, L., & Snyder, J.(1992).Curriculum studies and the traditions of inquiry: The scientific tradition. In P. Jackson (Ed.)Handbook of research on curriculum(pp. 79–97). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denzin, N. K.(1978).The logic of naturalistic inquiry. In N. K. Denzin (Ed.)Sociological methods: A sourcebook.New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denzin, N. K (1989).Interpretive interactionism.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denzin, N. K.(1994).The art and politics of interpretation. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 500–515). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S.(1994).Introduction: Entering the field of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln, (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 1–17).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denzin, N. K.&Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.).(1994).Handbook of qualitative research.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Descartes, R.(1980/1637).Discourse on methodtranslated by D. A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dilthey, W.(1976).Introduction to the human studies: The relationship of the human studies to the social sciences. In H. P. Richman (Ed.), W.Dilthey: Selected writings(pp. 163–167).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Originally published in W. DiltheyGesammelte SchriftenVol. 1, pp. 163–167. Leipzig, 1883).

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinham, S. M., & Stritter, F. T.(1986).Research in professional education. In Wittrock, M. C. (Ed.)Handbook of research on teaching.3rd ed.New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorr-Bremme, D.(1984).An introduction to practical fieldwork from an ethnographic perspective(Grant No. NIE-G-83–00001).Los Angeles: University of California, Center for the Study of Evaluation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, J. (Ed.).(1970).Understanding everyday life.Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisner, E. W.(1979).Some examples of educational criticism. In E. Eisner (Ed.)The educational imagination: On the design and evaluation of school programs(pp. 227–245).New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisner, E. W.(1985).The art of educational evaluation: A personal view.London: Palmer Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisner, E.(1991).The enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practices.New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J.(1991).Action research for educational change.Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ende, J., Pomerantz, A., & Erickson, F.(1995).Preceptors’ strategies for correcting residents in an ambulatory care medicine setting.Academic Medicine 70(3), 224–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engel, J. D., & Filling, C. M.(1981).Research approaches in health professions education: Problems and prospects.Evaluation and the Health Professions 4(1), 13–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erickson, F.(1986).Qualitative methods in research on teaching. In M. C. Whitrock (Ed.)Handbook of research on teaching(pp. 119–161). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fetterman, D. M.(1989).Ethnography: Step by step.Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske, J.(1994).Audiencing: Cultural practice and cultural studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 189–198). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Florio, S., & Walsh, M.(1980).The teacher as colleague in classroom research. In H. Trueba, G. Guthrie, & K. Au (Eds.)Culture in the bilingual classroom: Studies in classroom ethnography.Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fontana, A., & Frey, J. H.(1994)Interviewing: The art of science. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 361–376). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foss, L., & Rothenberg, K.(1987).The second medical revolution: From biomedicine to infomedicine.Boston: New Science Library.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, R. C.(1957).Training for uncertainty. In R. K. Merton, G. C. Reader, & P. L. Kendall (Eds.)The student physician.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, R. C.(1989).The sociology of medicine: A participant observer’s view.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gadamer, H. G.(1989).Truth and method(2nd rev. ed.).(J. Weinsheimer & D. G. Marshall, Trans.). New York: Crossroads.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gage, N. L. (1978).The scientific basis of the art of teaching.New York: Teachers College Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gage, N. L.(1989).The paradigm wars and their aftermath: A historical sketch on research on teaching.Teachers College Record 91(2), 135–150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garfinkel, H.(1967).Studies in ethnomethodology.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geertz, C. (1973).The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays.New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Giorgi, A.(1970).Psychology as a human science: A phenomenologically based approach.New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, B. G.(1978).Theoretical sensitivity: Advances in the methodology of grounded theory.Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. L.(1967).The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research.Chicago: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, B., & Strauss, A.(1979).The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research.Hawthorne, NY: Aldine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goetz, J. P., & LeCompte, M. D.(1984).Ethnography and qualitative design in educational research.Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greene, J. C.(1994).Qualitative program evaluation: Practice and promise. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 530–544). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guba, E. G.(1981).Criteria for assessing the trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries.Education and Communication Technology Journal 52518–520.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guba, E.(1990).The paradigm dialogue.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guba, E.&Lincoln, Y.(1981).Effective evaluation.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guba, E., & Lincoln, Y.(1989).Fourth generation evaluation.Newbury Park: CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S.(1994).Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 105–117). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J.(1979).Communication and the evolution of society.Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hafferty, F. W.(1998).Beyond curriculum reform: Confronting medicine’s hidden curriculum.Academic Medicine 73(4), 403–407.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hafferty, F. W.&Franks, R. (1994). The hidden curriculum, ethics teaching, and the structure of medical education.Academic Medicine 69(11), 861–871.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, I.(1991).Deliberative inquiry: The arts of planning. In E. C. Short (Ed.)Forms of curriculum inquiry(pp. 285–308). Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heritage, J.(1984).Garfinkel and ethnomethodology.Cambridge, UK: Polity.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewson, M. G., & Jensen, N. M.(1990).An inventory to improve clinical teaching in the general internal medicine clinic.Medical Education 24(6),518–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hewson, M. G., & Little, M. D.(1998).Giving feedback in medical education: Verification of recommended techniques.Journal of General Internal Medicine 13(2), 111–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holstein, J. A., & Gubrium, J. F.(1994).Phenomenology, ethnomethodology, and interpretive practice. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 262–272). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • House, E. R.(1976).Justice in evaluation. In G. V. Glass (Ed.)Evaluation studies review annual(Vol. 1). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huberman, A. M., & Miles, M. G.(1994).Data management and analysis methods. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 428–444). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hundert, E. M., Douglas-Steele, D., & Bickel, J.(1996).Context in medical education: The informal ethics curriculum.Medical Education 30(5), 353–364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hundert, E. M., Hafferty, F., & Christakis, D.(1996).Characteristics of the informal curriculum and trainees’ ethical choices.Academic Medicine 71(6), 624–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Husen, T.(1988).Research paradigms in education. In J. P. Keeves (Ed.)Educational research methodology and measurement: An international handbook(pp. 17–20). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Husserl, E.(1970).The crisis of European sciences and transcendental phenomenology(D. Can, Trans.).Evanston: Northwestern University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inui, T.S.(1996).The virtue of qualitative and quantitative research.Annals of Internal Medicine 125(9), 770–771.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inui, T. S., & Frankel, R. M.(1991).Evaluating the quality of qualitative research. A proposal pro tern.Journal of General Internal Medicine 6485–486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irby,D.M.(1990).Shifting paradigms of research in medical education.Academic Medicine 65(10), 622–623.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irby, D. M.(1992).How attending physicians make instructional decisions when conducting rounds.Academic Medicine 67(10), 630–638.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irby, D. M.(1994a).What clinical teachers in medicine need to know.Academic Medicine 69(5), 333–342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irby, D. M.(1994b).Three exemplary models of case-based teaching.Academic Medicine 69(12), 947–953.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janesick, V. (1994). The dance of qualitative research design: Metaphor, methodolatry, and meaning. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 209–219).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeves, J. P. (Ed.)(1988).Educational research methodology and measurement: An international handbook.Oxford: Pergamon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kincheloe, J. L., & McLaren, P. L. (1994). Rethinking critical theory and qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 138–157). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kracauer, S.(1953).The challenge to qualitative content analysis.Public Opinion Quarterly 16631–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, T. S.(1962).The structure of scientific revolutions.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • La Palio, L. R., Filling, C. M., Engel, J. D., & Ways, P. O. (1983). Multiple strategies for studying medical clerkship experience: A case study.Journal of Medical Education 58(4), 328–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeCompte, M. D. (1978). Learning to work: The hidden curriculum in the classroom.Anthropology and Education Quarterly 922–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LeCompte, M. D., Millroy, W. L., & Preissle, J.(1992).The handbook of qualitative research in eduction.San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leiter, K.(1980).A primer on ethnomethodology.New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, D. O.(1986).The American college and the culture of aspiration.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levine, H. G., Gallinore, R., Weisner, T., & Turner, J. D.(1980).Teaching participant-observational methods: A skills-building approach.Anthropology and Education Quarterly 1138–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Y., & Guba, E.(1985).Naturalistic inquiry.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. J.(1984).Analyzing social settings: A guide to qualitative observation and analysisChicago). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malinowski, B.(1961).Argonauts of the Western Pacific.New York: Dutton. (Original work published 1922).

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, P. K., & Cullum-Swan, B. (1994). Narrative, content and semiotic analysis. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 463–478). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, M. K., Baskin, M. N., Lovejoy, F. H., Jr., & Hafler, J. P.(1997).Archives of Pediatrics Adolescent Medicine 151 (2)193–198.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattern, W. D., Weinholtz, D., & Friedman, C. P. (1983). The attending physician as teacher.New England Journal of Medicine 308(19), 1129–1132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maxwell, J., & Wilkerson, L. (1990). A study of non-volunteer faculty in a problem-based curriculum.Academic Medicine 65(9 Suppl), S13–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCall, G. J., & Simmons, J. L. (1969).Issues in participant observation.Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKeman, J. (1991). The countenance of curriculum action research: Traditional, collaborative, and emancipatory-critical conceptions.Journal of Curriculum and Supervision3, 173–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Medio, F., Wilkerson, L., Reinhard, J. D., Maxwell, J. A., & Cohen, R. M. (1984).Improving teaching rounds: Action research in medical education.Proceedings of the Annual Conference on Research in Medical Education23283–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R., Fiske, M., & Kendall, P. (1956).The focused interview.New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. K., Reader, G. C., & Kendall, P. L. (Eds.) (1957).The student physician.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merton, R. T. (1975). Structural analysis in sociology. In P. Blau (Ed.)Approaches to the study of social structure.New York: The Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miles, M., & Huberman, A. (1984). Drawing valid meaning from qualitative data: Toward a shared craft.Educational Researcher 1320–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. (1994).Qualitative data analysis(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, G. E. (1980).Educating medical teachers.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. L., & Crabtree, B. F. (1994). Clinical research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 340–352). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, D. L., & Krueger, R. A. (1990).The focus group kit.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morse, J. M. (1994). Designing funded qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 220–235). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nachmias, D., & Nachmias, C. (1976).Research methods in the social sciences.New York: St. Martin’s.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neil, A. S. (1960).Summerhill: A radical approach to child rearing.New York: Hart.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olesen, V. (1994). Feminisms and models of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 158–174). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patton, M. Q. (1987).How to use qualitative methods in evaluation.Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Patton, M. Q. (1990).Qualitative evaluation and research methods.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearsol, J. A. (1988). Reconceptualizing inquiry in medical education. Professions Education Researcher Notes (PERQ) 9(3), 5–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelto, P. J. (1970).Anthropological research: The structure of inquiry.New York: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pelto, P. J.&Pelto, G. H.(1977).Anthropological research: The structure of inquiry.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinar, W., & Grumet, M. R. (1981). Theory and practice and the reconceptualization of curriculum studies. In L. Barton & M. Lawer (Eds.)Rethinking curriculum studies.New York: Halsted Press, John Wiley&Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinsky, L. E., & Irby, D. M. (1997). “If at first you don’t succeed”. Using failure to improve teaching.Academic Medicine 72(11), 973–976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Popham, J. (1969).Objectives and instruction in instructional objectives.American Educational Research Association (AERA) Monograph Series on Curriculum Evaluation. Washington, DC: AERA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Punch, M. (1994). Politics and ethics in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 83–97). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reason, P. (1994). Three approaches to participative inquiry. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 324–339). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards, T. J.&Richards, L. (1994). Using computers in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 445–462). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, M. F. (1983).Sociology ethnomethodology and experience.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schatzman, L., & Strauss, A. (1974).Field research: Strategies for a natural sociology.Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schon, D. (1971).The reflective practitioner.New York: Random House.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwab, J. J. (1960). What do scientists do?Behavioral Science 5(1), 1–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwab, J. J. (1978a). The practical: A language for curriculum. In I. Westbury & N. J. Wilkof (Eds.)Science curriculum and liberal education: Selected essays(pp. 287–321). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwab, J. J. (1978b). The practical 2: Arts of the eclectic. In I. Westbury & N. J. Wilkof (Eds.)Science curriculum and liberal education: Selected essays(pp. 322–364). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwab, J. J. (1978c). The practical 3: Translation into curriculum. In I. Westbury & N. J. Wilkof (Eds.)Science curriculum and liberal education: Selected essays(pp. 365–383). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwandt, T. A. (1989). Recapturing moral discourse in evaluation.Educational Researcher 18(8), 11–16, 34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwandt, T. A. (1991). Evaluation as moral critique. In C. L. Larson&H. Preskill (Eds.)Organizations in transition: Opportunities and challenges for evaluation(pp. 63–72). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwandt, T. A.&Halpern, E. S. (1988).Linking auditing and metaevaluation: Enhancing quality in applied research. Newbury ParkCA: Sage.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Scriven, M. (1967). The methodology of evaluation.AERA Monograph Series in Curriculum Evaluation 139–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, L. (1986). Paradigms and research programs in the study of teaching. In M.C. Whitrock (Ed.)Handbook of research on teaching(pp. 3–36). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, R., Wilkerson, L., & Goldman, D. A. (1992). Multiple realities: Teaching rounds in an inpatient pediatric service.American Journal of Diseases in Children 1469(1), 55–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shutz, A. (1967).Collected papers(Vol. 1, M Natanson, Ed.). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Sirotnik, K. A. (Ed.) (1990).Evaluation and social justice.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sirotnik, K. A. (1991). Critical inquiry: A paradigm for praxis. In E. C. Short (Ed.).Forms of curriculum inquiry(pp. 1243–1258). Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. C.&Kleinman, S. (1989). Managing emotions in medical school: Students’ contacts with the living and the dead.Social Psychology Quarterly 52(1), 56–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. C.&Noblit, G. W. (1989). The idea of qualitative research in medical education.Teaching and Learning in Medicine 1(2), 101–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. G. (1991). Hermeneutic inquiry: The hermeneutic imagination and the pedagogic text. In E. C. Short (Ed.).Forms of curriculum inquiry(pp. 187–210). Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. M. (1994). Biographical method. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 273–285). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. M., Dwyer, D. C., Prunty, J. J., & Kleine, P. F. (1988).Innovation and change in schooling: History politics and agency.London: Falmer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sommers, P. S., Muller, J. H., Saba, G. W., Draisin, J. A.&Short, W. B. (1994). Reflections-on-action: Medical students’ accounts of their implicit beliefs and strategies in the context of one-on-one clinical teaching.Academic Medicine69 (10), S84–S86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spradley, J. P. (1979).The ethnographic interview. Chicago: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spradley, J. P. (1980).Participant observation.New York: Holt, Rinehart&Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stake, R. E. (1994). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 236–247). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanfield, J. H. (1994). Ethnic modeling in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 175–188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart, D. W., & Shamdasoni, P. N.(1990).Focus groups Theory and practice.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J.(1990).Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J.(1994). Grounded theory methodology: An overview. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 273–285). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stufflebeam, D. L.(1991).Professional standards and ethics for evaluators. In M. W. McLaughlin & D. C. Phillips (Eds.)Evaluation and education: At quarter century(pp. 249–282). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorndike, E. L.(1903).Educational psychology.New York: Scientific Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tresolini, C. P., & Shugars, D. A.(1994).An integrated health care model in medical education: Interviews with faculty and administrators.Academic Medicine 69(3), 231–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tresolini, C. P., Shugars, D. A., & Lee, L. S.(1995).Teaching an integrated approach to health care: Lessons from five schools.Academic Medicine 70(8), 665–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tuchman, Gaye(1994).Historical social science: Methodologies, methods and meanings. In N. K. Denzin &Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.)Handbook of qualitative research(pp. 306–323). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tyler, R. W.(1949).Basic principles of curriculum and instruction.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ulian, J. A., Bland, C. J., & Simpson, D.(1994).An alternative approach to defining the role of the clinical teacher.Academic Medicine69 (10), 832–838.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Usatine, R. P., Nguyen, K., Randall, J., & Irby, D. M.(1997). Four exemplary preceptors’ strategies for efficient teaching in managed care settings.Academic Medicine 72(9), 766–769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valiance, E.(1977).The landscape of “The Great Plains Experience”: An application of curriculum criticism.Curriculum Inquiry 7(2), 87–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valiance, E.(1991).Aesthetic inquiry: Art criticism. In E. C. Short (Ed.)Forms of curriculum inquiry(pp. 155–172). Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Maanen, M.(1990).Researching the lived experience.London: University of Western Ontario.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, D. F.(1992).Methodological issues in curriculum research. In P. Jackson (Ed.)Handbook of research on curriculum(pp. 98–118). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, M.(1989).Analyzing qualitative data: Ethnography and the evaluation of medical education.Medical Education 23(6), 498–503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wax, R. H.(1971).Doing fieldwork: Warnings and advice.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wear, D.(1997).Professional development of medical students: Problems and promises.Academic Medicine 72(12), 1056–1062.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wear, D.(1998).On white coats and professional development: The formal and the hidden curricula.Annals of Internal Medicine 129(9), 734–737.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinholtz, D. (1981).A study of instructional leadership during medical attending rounds.Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinholtz, D.(1983).Directing medical student clinical case presentations.Medical Education17 (6), 364–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinholtz, D.(1989).Conducting research using qualitative and quantitative methods.Journal of Healthcare Education Training 4(2), 22–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinholtz, D.(1991).The socialization of physicians during attending rounds: A study of team learning among medical students.Qualitative Health Research 1(2), 152–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinholtz, D., & Friedman, C. P.(1985).Conducting qualitative studies using theory and previous research. A study reexamined.Evaluation and the Health Professions 8(2), 149–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinholtz, D., Everett, G., Albanese, M., & Shymansky, J.(1986).The attending round observation system.Evaluation and the Health Professions 9( 1), 75–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Werner, O., & Schoepfle, G. M.(1987a).Systematic fieldwork (Vol. 1) Foundations of ethnography and interviewing.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Werner, O., & Schoepfle, G. M.(1987h).Systematic fieldwork (Vol. 2) Ethnographic analysis and data management.Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, G.(1991).Phenomenological inquiry: Life-world perceptions. In E. C. Short (Ed.)Forms of curriculum inquiry(pp. 173–186). Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkerson, L., Hailer, J. P., & Liu, P.(1991).A case study of student-directed discussion in four problem-based tutorial groups.Academic Medicine 66(9 Suppl), S79–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkerson, L.&Maxwell, J. A. (1988). A qualitative study of initial faculty tutors in a problem-based curriculum.Journal of Medical Education 63(12), 892–899.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Minnesota Medical School, USA

    Ilene B. Harris

Authors
  1. Ilene B. Harris
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. McMaster University, Canada

    Geoff R. Norman

  2. University of Maastricht, The Netherlands

    Cees P. M. van der Vleuten  & Diana H. J. M. Dolmans  & 

  3. University of Sheffield, UK

    David I. Newble

  4. Dalhousie University, Canada

    Karen V. Mann

  5. University of Toronto, Canada

    Arthur Rothman

  6. CurryCorp, Canada

    Lynn Curry

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Harris, I.B. (2002). Qualitative Methods. In: Norman, G.R., et al. International Handbook of Research in Medical Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education, vol 7. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0462-6_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0462-6_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-3904-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-010-0462-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation