Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Stigma, Discrimination and Living with HIV/AIDS pp 53–69Cite as

HIV-Related Stigma Across Cultures: Adding Family into the Equation

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

The experience of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) and that of their family is intertwined in varying extent across cultures. Although the lives of both parties would be affected by the disease regardless of their ethnicity and culture, the impact may be manifested in various ways within different cultures and contexts. Within individualistic cultures, HIV contraction is more likely to be regarded as a personal issue or responsibility, and thus, the reputation of the family having a member with HIV/AIDS may be left intact. On the other hand, within collectivistic cultures, HIV-related stigma may, in a moral sense, bring shame to the family, which may threaten the reputation and identity of the entire family. In this chapter, the situation of HIV-related stigma within and beyond the family context will be discussed. In addition to addressing the effects of HIV-related stigma on the family, the effects of family relationships and communication on self-stigma and well-being of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) will be explored. On the one hand, family can be an essential resource for promoting the health and well-being of PLWHA; on the other hand, it can potentially incur stress and burden onto them as well as how they perceive the illness. Moreover, the heightened HIV-related stigma in collectivistic cultures will be examined with illustration from research on the Chinese communities. Some current family-based HIV interventions and recommendations on related research will be made at the end of the chapter. Given that HIV/AIDS is a chronic illness that impacts both physical and mental health of PLWHA, the integration of familial and cultural considerations in the promotion of PLWHA’s well-being is essential in service planning and delivery.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Allen, L., Cox, G., & Matlock, R. (2002). Family dynamics when a member of the family has HIV/AIDS. Transformation, 19, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alubo, O., Zwandor, A., Jolayemi, T., & Omudu, E. (2002). Acceptance and stigmatization of PLWA in Nigeria. AIDS Care, 14(1), 117–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barroso, J., & Powell-Cope, G. M. (2000). Metasynthesis of qualitative research on living with HIV infection. Qualitative Health Research, 10, 340–353.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beckett, A., & Rutan, J. (1990). Treating persons with ARC and AIDS in group psychotherapy. International Group Psychotherapy, 40, 19–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogart, L. M., Cowgill, B. O., Kennedy, D., Ryan, G., Murphy, D. A., Jacinta, E., & Schuster, M. A. (2008). HIV-related stigma among people with HIV and their family: A qualitative analysis. AIDS and Behavior, 12, 244–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bor, R., Miller, R., & Goldman, E. (1993). HIV/AIDS and the family: A review of research in the first decade. Journal of Family Therapy, 15, 187–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bor, R., Du Plessis, P., & Russell, M. (2004). The impact of disclosure of HIV on the index patient’s self-defined family. Journal of Family Therapy, 26, 167–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd-Franklin, N., Steiner, G. L., & Boland, M. G. (1995). Children, families, and HIV/AIDS: Psychosocial and therapeutic issues. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Britton, P. J., Zarski, J. J., & Hobfoll, S. E. (1993). Psychological distress and the role of significant others in a population of gay/bisexual men in the era of HIV. AIDS Care, 5, 43–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Busza, J. (1999). Literature review: Challenging HIV-related stigma and discrimination in Southeast Asia: Past successes and future priorities. New York: Population Council Horizons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castro, R., Orozco, E., Aggleton, P., Eroza, E., & Hernandez, J. J. (1998). Family responses to HIV/AIDS in Mexico. Social Science & Medicine, 47(10), 1473–1484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christ, G. H., Weiner, L. S., & Moynihan, R. T. (1986). Psychological issues in AIDS. Psychiatric Annals, 16(3), 173–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, H. J., Lindner, G., Armistead, L., & Austin, B. J. (2003). Stigma, disclosure, and psychological functioning among HIV-infected and non-infected African-American women. Women & Health, 38, 57–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corona, R., Beckett, M. K., Cowgill, B. O., Elliott, M. N., Murphy, D. A., Zhou, A. J., & Schuster, M. A. (2006). Do children know their parent’s HIV status? Parental reports of child awareness in a nationally representative sample. Ambulatory Pediatrics, 6, 138–144.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Courtenay-Quirk, C., Wolitski, R. J., Parsons, J. T., & Gomez, C. A. (2006). Is HIV/AIDS stigma dividing the gay community? Perceptions of HIV-positive men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 18, 56–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford, A. M. (1996). Stigma associated with AIDS: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 398–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Demi, A., Bakeman, R., Moneyham, L., Sowell, R., & Seals, B. (1997). Effects of resources and stressors on burden and depression of family members who provide care to an HIV infected woman. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 35–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Derlega, V. J., Winstead, B. A., Greene, K., Serovich, J., & Elwood, W. N. (2002). Perceived HIV-­related stigma and HIV disclosure to relationship partners after finding out about the seropositive diagnosis. Journal of Health Psychology, 7(4), 415–432.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Djoerban, Z., & Djauzi S. (1998). Yayasan Pelita Ilmu and support activities. Paper presented at the HIV/AIDS ASEAN regional workshop of Islamic Religious Leaders in Jakarta.

    Google Scholar 

  • Donenberg, G. R., & Pao, M. (2005). Youths and HIV/AIDS: Psychiatry’s role in a changing epidemic. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 728–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Donernberg, G. R., Paikoff, R., & Pequegnat, W. (2006). Introduction to the special section on families, youth and HIV family-based intervention studies. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(9), 869–873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duffy, L. (2005). Suffering, shame, and silence: The stigma of HIV/AIDS. The Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 16, 13–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fabrega, H. J. (2001). Mental health and illness in traditional India and China. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24, 555–567.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forehand, R., Steele, R., Armistead, L. P., Morse, E., Simon, P., & Clark, L. (1998). The family health project: Psychosocial adjustment of children whose mothers are HIV-infected. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 513–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frey, L. R., Query, J. L., Flint, L. J., & Adelman, M. B. (1998). Living together with AIDS: Social support processes in a residential facility. In V. J. Derlega & A. P. Barbee (Eds.), HIV and social interaction (pp. 129–146). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gielen, A. C., O’Camp, P., & Faden, R. R. (1997). Women’s disclosure of HIV status: Experiences of mistreatment and violence in an urban setting. Women & Health, 25, 19–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golin, C., Isasi, F., Bontempi, J. B., & Eng, E. (2002). Secret pills: HIV-positive patients’ experiences taking antiretroviral therapy in North Carolina. AIDS Education and Prevention, 14, 318–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, J. H., & Wenzel, A. (2002). HIV, AIDS, and close relationships. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19, 135–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hays, R. B., Magee, R. H., & Chauncey, S. (1994). Identifying helpful and unhelpful behaviors of loved ones: The PWA’s perspective. AIDS Care, 6, 379–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1993). Public reactions to AIDS in the United States: A second decade of stigma. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 574–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M., & Capitanio, J. P. (1999). AIDS stigma and sexual prejudice. American Behavioral Scientist, 42, 1126–1143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herek, G. M., & Mitnick, L. (1998). AIDS and stigma: A conceptual framework and research agenda. Retrieved January 16, 2010, from http://psychology.ucadavis.edu/rainbow/html/stigma98

  • Herek, G. M., Capitanio, J. P., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). HIV-related stigma and knowledge in the United States: Prevalence and trends, 1991–1999. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 371–377.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ho, C. Y. Y. (2011). Cultural model of self-stigma among social minorities: A preliminary study with people with drug dependence. Unpublished undergraduate thesis, Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hui, C. H., & Triandis, H. C. (1986). Individualism-collectivism: A study of crosscultural researchers. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 17, 225–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, D., & Hutchinson, S. A. (1999). HIV-positive mothers and stigma. Health Care for Women International, 20, 93–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, D., & Hutchinson, S. A. (2000). Double binds and the reproductive and mothering experiences of HIV-positive women. Qualitative Health Research, 10, 117–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, K. M., Jones, D. A., Fass, R. J., Neidig, J. L., & Song, Y. S. (1999). Social support and unsupportive social interactions: Their association with depression among people living with HIV. AIDS Care, 11, 313–329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jin, Y. (1994, February). Zhongguo ren dui siyinquan de lijie [Chinese idea of privacy right]. Ming Pao Monthly, 56–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D. J., Beach, S. R. H., Forehand, R., & Foster, S. E. (2003). Self-reported health in HIV-­positive African American women: The role of family stress and depressive symptoms. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 26(6), 577–599.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, E. B., & Bhatti, R. S. (2004). Psychological problems and coping patterns of HIV seropositive wives of men with HIV/AIDS. Social Work in Health Care, 39(1/2), 29–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaiser Family Foundation. (2006). Attitudes about stigma and discrimination related to HIV/AIDS. Retrieved December 5, 2010, from http://www.kff.org/spotlight/hivstigma/index.cfm

  • Kegeles, S. M., Coates, T. J., Christopher, T. A., & Lazarus, J. L. (1989). Perceptions of AIDS: The continuing saga of AIDS-related stigma. AIDS, 3(supplement 1), 253–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kipp, W., Nkosi, M. T., Laing, L., & Jhangri, G. S. (2006). Care burden and self-reported health status of informed women caregivers of HIV/AIDS patients in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. AIDS Care, 18(7), 694–697.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kmita, G., Baranska, M., & Niemiec, T. (2002). Psychosocial intervention in the process of empowering families with children living with HIV/AIDS-A descriptive study. AIDS Care, 14(20), 279–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, F. R. (2000). Endings and continuity of social relationships: Maximizing intrinsic benefits with personal networks when feeling near to death. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17, 155–182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. T. F., Yu, X. N., Mak, W. W. S., Cheng, Y. M., Lv, Y. H., & Zhang, J. X. (2010). Suicidal ideation among HIV+ former blood and/ or plasma donors in rural China. AIDS Care, 22, 946–954.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lekas, H. M., Siegel, K., & Schrimshaw, E. W. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in the experiences of felt and enacted stigma among women with HIV/AIDS. Qualitative Health Research, 16, 1165–1190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lennon, M. C., Martin, J. L., & Dean, L. (1990). The influence of social support on AIDS-related grief reaction among gay men. Social Science & Medicine, 31, 477–484.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leslie, M. B., Stein, J. A., & Rotheram-Borus, M. J. (2002). The impact of coping strategies, personal relationships, and emotional distress on health-related outcomes of parents living HIV or AIDS. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19, 45–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, L., Wu, S., Cui, H., & Rotheram, M. J. (2005). Families living with HIV/AIDS in China. Paper presented at the Seventh International Congress on AIDS in Asia and the Pacific Abstract, Kobe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, L., Wu, S., Wu, Z. Y., Sun, S., Cui, H. X., & Jia, M. H. (2006). Understanding family support for people living with HIV/AIDS in Yunnan, China. AIDS and Behavior, 10(5), 509–517.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, L., Wu, Z., Wu, S., Yu, Z., Jia, M., & Yan, Z. (2007). HIV-related stigma in health care settings: A survey of service providers in China. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 21(10), 753–762.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, L., Wu, Z. Y., Wu, S., Jia, M. H., Lieber, E., & Lu, Y. (2008). Impacts of HIV/AIDS stigma on family identity and interactions in China. Families, Systems & Health, 26(4), 431–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liamputtong, P., Haritavorn, N., & Kiatying-Angsulee, N. (2012). Living positively: The experiences of Thai women in central Thailand. Qualitative Health Research, 22(4), 441–451.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieber, E., Li, L., Wu, Z., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Guan, J., & NIMH Collaborative HIV Prevention Trial Group. (2006). HIV/STD stigmatization fears as health seeking barriers in China. AIDS Behavior, 10, 463–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, H., Hu, Z., Li, X. M., Stanton, B., Naar-king, S., & Yang, H. M. (2006). Understanding interrelationships among HIV-related stigma, concern about HIV infection, and intent to disclose HIV serostatus: A pretest-posttest study in a rural area of eastern China. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 20(2), 134–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy, N. (1989). AIDS: Impact on the gay man’s homosexual and heterosexual families. Marriage and Family Review, 14, 285–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mak, W. W. S., & Ho, C. Y. Y. (2011). Model of face concern on self-stigma and mental health of HIV+ men who have sex with men (Unpublished raw data).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mak, W. W. S., Mo, P. K. H., Cheung, R. Y. M., Woo, J., Cheung, F. M., & Lee, D. (2006). Comparative stigma of HIV/AIDS, SARS, and Tuberculosis in Hong Kong. Social Science & Medicine, 63(7), 1912–1922.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mak, W. W. S., Cheung, R. Y. M., Law, R. W., Woo, J., Li, P. C. K., & Chung, R. W. Y. (2007). Examining attribution model of self-stigma on social support and psychological well-being among people with HIV+/AIDS. Social Science & Medicine, 64, 1549–1559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maneesriwongul, W., Panutat, S., Putwatana, P., Srirapo-ngam, Y., Ounprasertpong, L., & Williams, A. B. (2004). Educational needs of family caregivers of persons living with HIV/AIDS in Thailand. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Cares, 15(3), 27–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manopaiboon, C., Shaffer, N., Clark, L., Bhadrakom, C., Siriwasin, W., Chearskui, S., Suteewan, W., Kaewkungwal, J., Bennetts, A., & Mastro, T. (1998). Impact of HIV on families of HIV-­infected women who have recently given birth, Bangkok, Thailand. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes and Human Retrovirology, 18(1), 54–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonnell, J. R. (1993). Judgments of personality responsibility for HIV infection: An attributional analysis. Social Work, 38, 403–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGoldrick, M., & Gerson, R. (1985). Genograms in family assessment. New York: Norton.

    Google Scholar 

  • McShane, R. E., Bumbalo, J. A., & Patsdaughter, C. A. (1994). Psychological distress in family members living with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 8, 53–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melvin, D. (1996). ‘Don’t forget the children’: Families living with HIV infection. In L. Sherr, A. Hankins, & L. Bennett (Eds.), AIDS as a gender issue. Basingstoke: Taylor & Francis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melvin, D., & Sherr, L. (1993). The child in the family – Responding to AIDS and HIV. AIDS Care, 5, 35–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melvin, D., & Sherr, L. (1995). HIV infection in London children – Psychosocial complexity and emotional burden. Child: Care, Health and Development, 21, 405–412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minuchin, S. (1974). Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mo, P. K. H., & Mak, W. W. S. (2009). Intentionality of medication nonadherence among individuals living with HIV/AIDS in Hong Kong. AIDS Care, 21, 785–795.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muhomba, M. (2007). The relationship between HIV/AIDS-related stigma and the process of forgiveness with a special focus on the family context. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, College of Education, The University of Kentucky, Kentucky.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, D. A., Roberts, K. J., Hoffman, D., Molina, A., & Lu, M. C. (2003). Barriers and successful strategies to antiretroviral adherence among HIV-infected monolingual Spanish-speaking patients. AIDS Care, 15, 217–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, D. A., Austin, E., & Greenwell, L. (2007). Correlates of HIV-related stigma among HIV-­positive mothers and their uninfected adolescent children. Women & Health, 44(3), 19–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murray-Johnson, L., Witte, K., Liu, W. Y., Hubbell, A. P., Sampson, J., & Morrison, K. (2001). Addressing cultural orientation in fear appeals: Promoting AIDS-protective behaviors among Mexican immigrant and African American adolescents and American and Taiwanese college students. Journal of Heath Community, 6, 335–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelms, T. P. (2002). A most wonderful, tragic experience: The phenomenon of mothering in caregiving an adult son with AIDS. Journal of Family Nursing, 8, 282–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owens, S. (2003). African American women living with HIV/AIDS: Families as sources of support and of stress. Social Work, 48, 163–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panos, D. (1990). The 3rd epidemic: Repercussions of the fear of AIDS. London: Panos Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, J. M., & Garwick, A. W. (1994). The impact of chronic illness on families: A family systems perspective. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 6, 131–142.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I., Aneshensel, C. S., & LeBlanc, A. J. (1997). The forms and mechanisms of stress proliferation: The case of AIDS caregivers. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38, 223–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pequegnat, W., & Bray, J. (1997). Families and HIV/AIDS: Introduction to the special sections. Journal of Family Psychology, 11, 3–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pequegnat, W., Bauman, L. J., Bray, J. H., DiClementa, R., Dilorio, C., Hoppe, S. K., Jemmott, L. S., Krauss, B., Miles, M., Paikoff, R., Rapkin, B., Rotheram-Borus, M. J., & Szapocznik, J. (2001). Measurement of the role of families in prevention and adaption to HIV/AIDS. AIDS and Behavior, 5, 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Powell-Cope, G., & Brown, M. (1992). Going public as an AIDS family caregiver. Social Science & Medicine, 34, 571–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rintamaki, L. S., Davis, T. C., Skripkauskas, S., Bennett, C. L., & Wolf, M. S. (2006). Social stigma concerns and HIV medication adherence. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 20, 359–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., & Lightfoot, M. (2001). Helping adolescents and parents with AIDS cope effectively with daily life. In W. Pequegnat & J. Szapocznik (Eds.), Working with families in the era of HIV/AIDS (pp. 189–212). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rotheram-Borus, M. J., Robin, L., Reid, H., & Draimin, B. H. (1998). Parent–adolescent conflict and stress when parents are living with AIDS. Family Process, 37(1), 83–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semple, S. J., Patterson, T. L., Temoshok, L. R., & McCutchan, J. A. (1993). Identification of psychobiological stressors among HIV-positive women. Women & Health, 20(4), 15–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel, K., Scrimshaw, E. W., & Ravies, V. H. (2000). Accounts for non-adherence to antiviral combination therapies among older HIV-infected adults. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 5, 29–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Song, Y. S., & Ingram, K. M. (2002). Unsupportive social interactions, availability of social support, and coping: Their relationship to mood disturbance among African Americans living with HIV. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 19, 67–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Songwathana, P., & Manderson, L. (2001). Stigma and rejection: Living with AIDS in villages in southern Thailand. Medical Anthropology, 20(1), 1–23.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Su, X. Y., Lau, J. T. F., Mak, W. W. S., Chen, L., Feng, T., Chen, X., Liu, J., & Liu, D. (2008). Development of the perceived stress scale for people living with HIV/AIDS in China. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 22(12), 989–998.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. C., Bontempo, R., Willareal, M. J., Asai, M., & Lucca, N. (1988). Individualism and collectivism: Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relationship. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 323–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsui, M. (1989). Changes in Chinese urban family structure. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51(3), 737–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNAIDS. (2003, December). AIDS epidemic update. Geneva: UNAIDS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vanable, P. A., Carey, M. P., Blair, D. C., & Littlewood, R. A. (2006). Impact of HIV-related stigma on health behaviors and psychological adjustment among HIV-positive men and women. AIDS and Behavior, 10, 473–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varas-Diaz, N., Serrano-Garcia, I., & Toro-Alfonso, J. (2005). AIDS-related stigma and social interaction: Puerto Ricans living with HIV/AIDS. Qualitative Health Research, 15, 169–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wacharasin, C., & Homchampa, P. (2008). Uncovering a family caregiving model: Insights from research to benefit HIV-infected patients, their caregivers, and health professionals. The Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, 19, 385–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warwick, I., Bharat, S., Roberto, C., Garcia, R., Leshabari, M. T., Singhanetra-renard, A., & Aggleton, P. (1998). Household and community responses to AIDS in developing countries. Critical Public Health, 8(4), 291–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, B. (2004). Attribution theory revisited: Transforming cultural plurality into theoretical unity. In D. M. Mclnerney & S. Vanetten (Eds.), Research on sociocultural influences on motivation and learning (Big theories revisited, Vol. 4, pp. 13–30). Greenwich: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R. S. (1975). Marital separation. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weitz, R. (1990). Living with the stigma of AIDS. Qualitative Sociology, 13, 23–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wells, H. (1999). Joint Ministry of Health/NGO pilot project on home and community care for people with HIV/AIDS. Phnom Penh: KHANA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiener, L., Riekert, K. A., Theut, S., Steinberg, S. M., & Pizzo, P. A. (1995). Parental psychological adaptation and children with HIV: A follow-up study. AIDS Patient Care, 9(5), 233–239.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wight, R. G. (2000). Precursive depression among HIV infected AIDS caregivers over time. Social Sciences & Medicine, 51, 759–770.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wight, R. G., Aneshensel, C. S., Murphy, D. A., Miller-Martinez, D., & Beals, K. P. (2006). Perceived HIV stigma in AIDS caregiving dyads. Social Science & Medicine, 62, 444–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, M. L., & Leahey, M. (2005). Nursing and families: A guide to family assessment and intervention (3rd ed.). Philadelphia: F.A. Davis Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wright, A. F., & Twitchett, D. (Eds.). (1962). Confucian personalities. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, X. N., Lau, J. T. F., Mak, W. W. S., Cheng, Y. M., Lv, Y. H., & Zhang, J. X. (2009). Risk and protective factors in association with mental health problems among people living with HIV/AIDS who were former plasma/blood donors in rural China. AIDS Care, 21, 645–654.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Q. Y., & Chen, Q. (1996). Study and analysis of the psychological state of immediate family members of IDUs. Chinese Journal of Substance Abuse and Prevention, 5(2), 23–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, F., Teng, T., Ruan, Y. H., Hao, Q. N., Chen, K. L., Tai, G. M., et al. (2004). Preliminary study result of factors affecting program follow-up among the IDU population. China HIV/AIDS and STD, 10(5), 338–340.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong

    Connie Y. Y. Ho & Winnie W. S. Mak

Authors
  1. Connie Y. Y. Ho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Winnie W. S. Mak
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Winnie W. S. Mak .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health, La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3086, Victoria, Australia

    Pranee Liamputtong

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Ho, C.Y.Y., Mak, W.W.S. (2013). HIV-Related Stigma Across Cultures: Adding Family into the Equation. In: Liamputtong, P. (eds) Stigma, Discrimination and Living with HIV/AIDS. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6324-1_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation