Skip to main content

The Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Stress Response

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

In the first chapter, we provided the following working definition of the stress response: “Stress is a physiological response that serves as a mechanism of mediation linking any given stressor to its target-organ effect.” By viewing the phenomenology of stress within the context of a “linking” mechanism, we can answer one of the most critical questions in psychosomatic medicine, that is, through what mechanisms can stressor stimuli, such as life events, lead to disease and dysfunction? The response to that query will be addressed within the next three chapters.

It is highly dishonorable for a Reasonable Soul to live in so Divinely built a Mansion as the Body she resides in, altogether unacquainted with the exquisite structure of it.

Robert Boyle

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aggleton, J. P. (Ed.). (1992). The amygdala. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, M. (1970). Feelings and emotions. New York, NY: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, M. (1984). Memory and the brain. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Axelrod, J., & Reisine, T. (1984). Stress hormones. Science, 224, 452–459.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. B. (1914). The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and in the major emotions. American Journal of Physiology, 33, 356–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. B. (1953). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. Boston, MA: Branford Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. B., & Paz, D. (1911). Emotional stimulation of adrenal secretion. American Journal of Physiology, 28, 64–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carruthers, M., & Taggart, P. (1973). Vagotonicity of violence. British Medical Journal, 3, 384–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cassel, J. (1974). Psychosocial processes and stress: The behavioral sciences and preventive medicine. Washington, DC: Public Health Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, F., & Lazarus, R. S. (1979). Coping with the stresses of illness. In G. Stone, F. Cohen, & N. Adler (Eds.), Health psychology (pp. 217–254). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corson, S., & Corson, E. (1971). Psychosocial influences on renal function: Implications for human pathophysiology. In L. Levi (Ed.), Society, stress, and disease (Vol. 1, pp. 338–351). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullinan, W., Herman, J. P., Helmreich, D., & Watson, S. (1995). A neuroanatomy of stress. In M. J. Friedman, D. Charney, & A. Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress (pp. 3–26). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York, NY: Stuart Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entringer, S., Kumsta, R., Hellhammer, D. H., Wadhwa, P. D., & Wust, S. (2009). Prenatal exposure to maternal psychosocial stress and HPA axis regulation in young adults. Hormones and Behavior, 55, 292–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2008.11.006.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr. (1978). The Organ Specificity Score as a measure of psychophysiological stress reactivity (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Maryland, College Park, MD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr. (1979). Strategies for coping with stress: An assessment scale. Washington, DC: Office of Health Promotion, Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr. (1986). A “biopsychosocial analysis” of psychosomatic disease. In T. Millon & G. Kierman (Eds.), Contemporary directions in psychopathology (pp. 535–551). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr., & Benson, H. (1989). Disorders of arousal and the relaxation response. International Journal of Psychosomatics, 36, 15–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr., Davy, J. A., Smith, K. J., Lating, J. M., & Nucifora, F. C., Jr. (2011). A defining aspect of human resilience in the workplace: A structural modeling approach. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 5, 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1001/dmp.2011.38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr., Smith, K. J., & Lating, J. M. (2009). A rationale for cognitively-based resilience and psychological first aid (PFA) training: A structural modeling analysis. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 11, 249–262.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Florian, J. P., & Pawelczyk, J. A. (2010). Non-esterified fatty acids increase arterial pressure via central sympathetic activation in humans. Clinical Science, 118, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20090063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foley, P., & Kirschbaum, C. (2010). Human hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis responses to acute psychosocial stress in laboratory settings. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 91–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.01.010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folkow, B., & Neil, E. (1971). Circulation. London, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankenhaeuser, M. (1980). Psychoneuroendocrine approaches to the study of stressful person-environment transactions. In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research (pp. 46–70). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganong, W. F. (1997). Review of medical physiology (18th ed.). Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1957). Autonomic imbalance and the hypothalamus. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1958a). The physiological basis of neuromuscular relaxation. Archives of Internal Medicine, 102, 392–399. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1958.00030010392007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1958b). The influence of curare on hypothalamic excitability and the electroencephalogram. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 10, 697–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(58)90071-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1964a). Motion and emotion. Psychological Review, 71, 457–472.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1964b). Sympathetic reactivity in hypertension. Acta Neurovegetative, 26, 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01227296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1965). The neurophysiological basis of anxiety. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 8, 488–515.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1967). Principles of autonomic-somatic integrations. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1968). Central nervous system tuning and its implications for neuropsychiatry. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 147, 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-196808000-00007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1969). Further studies on the physiology and pathophysiology of the tuning of the central nervous system. Psychosomatics, 10, 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(69)71768-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E., & Loofburrow, G. (1963). Emotions and emotional disorders. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gevarter, W. (1978). Psychotherapy and the brain (Unpublished paper). NASA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, S., & Gunderson, J. G. (1970). Cushing’s disease as a psychosomatic disorder: A selective review. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 13, 169–221.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Girdano, D., Dusek, D., & Everly, G. (2012). Controlling stress and tension. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guyenet, P. G. (2006). The sympathetic control of blood pressure. Nature Reviews/Neuroscience, 7, 335–346. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1902.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. E. (2011). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. E. (2016). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (13th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, H. A. (1975). Review of physiological chemistry. Los Altos, CA: Lange.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hassett, J. (1978). A primer of psychophysiology. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2009). Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrum, 14(1 (Suppl 1)), 13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, J. P., & Ely, D. (1976). Biologic correlates of psychosomatic illness. In R. Grenen & S. Galay (Eds.), Biological foundations of psychiatry (pp. 945–986). New York, NY: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, J. P., & Stephens, P. (1977). Stress, health, and the social environment. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, W. (1957). The functional organization of the diencephalon. New York, NY: Grune & Stratton Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. H., & Spalding, J. M. (1974). Disorders of the autonomic nervous system. Philadelphia, PA: Davis Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kopin, L. (1976). Catecholamines, adrenal hormones, and stress. Hospital Practice, 11, 49–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/21548331.1976.11706913.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan, V., & Nestler, E. J. (2008). The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature, 455, 894–902. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07455.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, S. (1972). Psychosomatic disorders: A behavioristic interpretation. New York, NY: Wiley Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang, I. M. (1975). Limbic involvement in the vagosympathetic arterial pressor response of the rat (Unpublished master’s thesis). Temple University, Philadelphia, PA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1982). Thoughts on the relations between emotions and cognition. American Psychologist, 37, 1019–1024. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.37.9.1019.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (2006). Stress and emotion: A new synthesis. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Blanc, J. (1976, July). The role of catecholamines in adaptation to chronic and acute stress. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the International Symposium on Catecholamines and Stress, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lennartsson, A., & Jonsdottir, I. H. (2011). Prolactin response to acute psychosocial stress in healthy men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 1530–1539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.04.007.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levi, L. (1972). Psychosocial stimuli, psychophysiological reactions and disease. Acta Medico Scandinavica (Entire Suppl.), 528, 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lomax, A. E., Sharkey, K. A., & Furness, J. B. (2010). The participation of the sympathetic innervation of the gastrointestinal tract in disease states. Neurogastroenterology & Motility, 22, 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2982.2009.01381.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, U., & Forsman, L. (1978). Adrenal medullary and adrenal cortical responses to under stimulation and overstimulation (Report No. 541). Stockholm, Sweden: Department of Psychology, University of Stockholm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macfarlane, D. P., Forbes, S., & Walker, B. R. (2008). Glucocorticoids and fatty acid metabolism in humans: Fuelling fat redistribution in the metabolic syndrome. Journal of Endocrinology, 197, 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1677/joe-08-0054.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. (1949). Psychosomatic disease and the “visceral brain”. Psychosomatic Medicine, 11, 338–353. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-194911000-00003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. (1975). On the evolution of three mentalities. Man-Environment System, 5, 213–994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makara, G., Palkovits, M., & Szentagothal, J. (1980). The endocrine hypothalamus and the hormonal response to stress. In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research (pp. 280–337). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malmo, R. B. (1975). On emotions, needs, and our archaic brain. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maranon, G. (1924). Contribution a 1’etude de 1’action emotive de 1’ademaline. Revue Francais d’Endrocrinologie, 2, 301–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1968a). A review of psychendocrine research on the sympathetic–adrenal medullary system. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 631–653.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1968b). Organization of psychoendocrine mechanisms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30 (entire P. 2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1968c). A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary–adrenal–cortical system. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 576–607. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-196809000-00020.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1972). Organization of psychoendocrine mechanisms: A review and reconsideration of research. In N. Greenfield & R. Sternbach (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 3–76). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W., Wang, S., Yehuda, R., Bremner, J. D., Riney, S., Lubin, H., & Charney, D. (1995). Some approaches to the study of clinical implications of thyroid alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder. In M. J. Friedman, D. Charney, & A. Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological, and clinical consequences of stress (pp. 367–380). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazeh, H., Paldor, I., & Chen, H. (2012). The endocrine system: Pituitary and adrenal glands. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice, 1–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, P., & Schneiderman, N. (1984). Psychophysiologic reactions to stress. In N. Schneiderman & J. Tapp (Eds.), Behavioral medicine (pp. 3–32). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCorry, L. K., Ph.D. (2007). Physiology of the autonomic nervous system. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71, 1–78. https://doi.org/10.5688/aj710478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum, D. (1985). Stress innoculation training. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum, D., & Jaremko, M. (1983). Stress reduction and prevention. New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, N. E. (1978). Biofeedback and visceral learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 29, 373–404. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.29.020178.002105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, N. E. (1979). General discussion and a review of recent results with paralyzed patients. In R. Gatchel & K. Price (Eds.), Clinical applications of biofeedback (pp. 215–225). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millon, T., & Everly, G. S., Jr. (1985). Personality and its disorders. New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millon, T., Grossman, S., Millon, C., Meagher, S., & Ramnath, R. (2004). Personality disorders in modern life. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, K. (Ed.). (2016). Oxford textbook of clinical neurophysiology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nauta, W. (1979). Expanding borders of the limbic system concept. In T. Rasmussen & R. Marino (Eds.), Functional neurosurgery (pp. 7–23). New York, NY: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nauta, W., & Domesick, V. (1982). Neural associations of the limbic system. In A. Beckman (Ed.), Neural substrates of behavior (pp. 3–29). New York, NY: Spectrum Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Omer, H., & Everly, G. S., Jr. (1988). Psychological influences on pre-term labor. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 1507–1513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penfield, W. (1975). The mystery of the mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray, C. A., & Carter, J. R. (2010). Effects of aerobic exercise training on sympathetic and renal responses to mental stress in humans. American Journal of Physiology—Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 298, H229–H234. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00880.2009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Redmond, D. E. (1979). New and old evidence for the involvement of a brain norepinephrine system in anxiety. In W. Fann, I. Karacan, A. Pikomey, & R. Williams (Eds.), Phenomenology and treatment of anxiety (pp. 153–204). New York, NY: Spectrum Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiman, E., Raichle, M. E., Robins, E., Butler, F. K., Herscovitch, P., Fox, P., & Perlmutter, J. (1986). The application of positron emission tomography to the study of panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 469–477. http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1176/ajp.143.4.469.

  • Reisman, M. (2016). PTSD treatment for veterans: What’s working, what’s new, and what’s next. Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 41, 623–634. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5047000/pdf/ptj4110623.pdf.

  • Rochefort, G. J., Rosenberger, J., & Saffran, M. (1959). Depletion of pituitary corticotropin by various stresses and by neurohypophyseal preparations. Journal of Physiology, 146, 105–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roldan, E., Alvarez-Pelaez, P., & de Molina, F. (1974). Electrographic study of the amygdaloid defense response. Physiology & Behavior, 13, 779–787.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rossier, J., Bloom, F., & Guillemin, R. (1980). In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research (pp. 187–207). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Publisher.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N. A., Rigby, B. R., La Bounty, P., Shelmadine, B., & Bowden, R. G. (2011). A review of weight control strategies and their effects on the regulation of hormonal balance. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2011, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/237932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seaward, B. (2017). Managing stress. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1976). Stress in health and disease. Boston, MA: Butterworth Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. J., Everly, G. S., & Johns, T. (1992, December). A structural modeling analysis of the mediating role of cognitive-affective arousal in the relationship between job stressors and illness among accountants. Paper presented to the Second APA/NIOSH Conference on Occupational Stress, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. J., Everly, G. S., & Johns, T. (1993). The role of stress arousal in the dynamics of the stressor-to-illness process among accountants. Contemporary Accounting Research, 9, 432–449. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1911-3846.1993.tb00890.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sowers, J. R., Carlson, H. E., Brautbar, N., & Hershman, J. M. (1977). Effect of dexamethasone on prolactin and TSH responses to TRH and metoclopramide in man. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 44, 237–241. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-44-2-237.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sternbach, R. (1966). Principles of psychophysiology: An introductory text and readings. Oxford, England: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Surges, R., Thijs, R. D., Tan, H. L., & Sander, J. W. (2009). Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: Risk factors and potential pathomechanisms. Nature Reviews/Neurology, 5, 492–504. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2009.118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E. (2006). Tend and befriend: Biobehavioral bases of affiliation under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 273–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00451.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsigos, C., Kyrou, I., Kassi, E., & Chrousous, G. P. (2016). Stress, endocrine physiology and pathophysiology. In L. J. De Groot, G. Chrousos, K. Dungan, K. R. Fienfold, & A. Grossman (Eds), A Vinik endotext [internet]. South Dartmouth, MA: MDText.com, Inc. Retrieved 2000 from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK278995/.

  • Usdin, E., Kretnansky, R., & Kopin, L. (1976). Catecholamines and stress. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Raalte, D. H., Ouwens, D. M., & Diamant, M. (2009). Novel insights into glucocorticoid-mediated diabetogenic effects: Towards expansion of therapeutic options? European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 39, 81–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2362.2008.02067.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weil, J. (1974). A neurophysiological model of emotional and intentional behavior. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wenger, M. A., Clemens, T., Darsie, M. L., Engel, B. T., Estess, F. M., & Sonnenschien, R. R. (1960). Autonomic response patterns during intravenous infusion of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Psychosomatic Medicine, 22, 294–307. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006842-196007000-00009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widmaier, E. P., Raff, H., & Strang, K. T. (2004). Vander, Sherman, Luciano’s human physiology: The mechanisms of body function. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. B. (1986). Patterns of reactivity and stress. In K. Matthews, R. R. Williams, S. B. Manuck, B. Faulkner, T. Dembroski, T. Detre, & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Handbook of stress, reactivity, and cardiovascular disease (pp. 109–125). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Giller, E., Levengood, R., Southwick, S., & Siever, L. (1995). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal-functioning in post-traumatic stress disorder. In M. J. Friedman, D. Charney, & A. Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological, and clinical consequences of stress (pp. 351–366). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuwiler, A. (1976). Stress, anxiety and endocrine function. In R. Grenell & S. Gabay (Eds.), Biological foundations of psychiatry (pp. 889–943). New York, NY: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann, U. S., Buchmann, A. F., Spring, C., Uhr, M., Holsboer, F., & Wittchen, H.-U. (2009). Ethanol administration dampens the prolactin response to psychosocial stress exposure in sons of alcohol-dependent fathers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 996–1003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.01.015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to George S. Everly Jr. or Jeffrey M. Lating .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Everly, G.S., Lating, J.M. (2019). The Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Stress Response. In: A Clinical Guide to the Treatment of the Human Stress Response. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9098-6_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics