Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Shyness, Self-Esteem, and Self-Consciousness

  • Chapter
Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety

Abstract

Shyness is the ordinary language term most often used to label feelings of anxiety and inhibition in social situations. It is a remarkably common experience. Less than 10% of respondents to a cross-cultural survey reported that they had never felt shy (Zimbardo, 1977). Ratings of shyness-eliciting events reveal that interactions with strangers, especially those of the opposite sex or in positions of authority, situations requiring assertive behavior, and explicitly evaluative settings such as job interviews, provoke the strongest feelings of social anxiety (Russell, Cutrona, & Jones, 1986; Watson & Cheek, 1986).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, G. R., Abraham, K. G., & Markstrom, C. A. (1987). The relations among identity development, self-consciousness, and self-focusing during middle and late adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 23, 292–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akert, R. M., Cheek, J. M., & Young, M. M. (1989). [Shyness and memories of personal experiences]. Unpublished raw data, Wellesley College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alden, L. (1987). Attributional responses of anxious individuals to different patterns of social feedback: Nothing succeeds like improvement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52,100–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alden, L., & Cappe, R.(1986). Interpersonal process training for shy clients. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 343–355). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G. W. (1955). Becoming. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allport, G. W. (1960). The open system in personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 301–310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. A., & Arnoult, L. H. (1985a). Attributional styles and everyday problems in living: Depression, loneliness, and shyness. Social Cognition, 3, 16–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, C. A., & Arnoult, L. H. (1985b). Attributional models of depression, loneliness, and shyness. In J. Harvey & G. Weary (Eds.), Attribution: Basic issues and applications (pp. 235–279). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arkin, R. M., Appelman, A. J., & Burger, J. M. (1980). Social anxiety, self-presentation, and the self-serving bias in causal attribution. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 23–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arkin, R. M., Lake, E. A., & Baumgardner, A. B. (1986). Shyness and self-presentation. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 189–203). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, A. P., & Cheek, J. M. (1986). Shyness, self-preoccupation, and the Stroop color and word test. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 571–573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Asendorpf, J. B. (1987). Videotape reconstruction of emotions and cognitions related to shyness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 542–549.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, J. M. (1894). Bashfulness in children. Educational Review, 8, 434–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37, 122–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister, R. F., & Scher, S. J. (1988). Self-defeating behavior patterns among normal individuals: Review and analysis of common self-destructive tendencies. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 3–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumgardner, A. H., & Brownlee, E. A. (1987). Strategic failure in social interaction: Evidence for expectancy disconfirmation processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 525–535.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1988). Anxiety and depression: An information processing perspective. Anxiety Research, 1, 23–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, N. J., Avery, A. W., Jenkins, D., Feld, J., & Schoenrock, C. J. (1985). Family relationships and social competence during late adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 109–119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bern, S. L. (1981). Bern sex-role inventory professional manual, Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, C. R. (1980). Self-consciousness and the study of interpersonal interactions: Approaches and issues. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson, & P. Smith (Eds.), Language: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 49–53). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumberg, S. H., & Izard, C. E. (1986). Discriminating patterns of emotions in 10- and 11-year-old children’s anxiety and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 852–857.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bohrnstedt, G. W., & Felson, R. B. (1983). Explaining the relations among children’s actual and perceived performances and self-esteem: A comparison of several causal models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 43–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Borkovec, T. D., Metzger, R. L., & Pruzinsky, T. (1986). Anxiety, worry, and the self. In L. M. Hartman & K. R. Blankstein (Eds.), Perception of self in emotional disorder and psychotherapy (pp. 219–260). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breck, B. E., & Smith, S. H. (1983). Selective recall of self-descriptive traits by socially anxious and nonanxious females. Social Behavior and Personality, 11, 71–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Breckler, S. J. (1984). Empirical validation of affect, behavior, and cognition as distinct components of attitude. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 1191–1205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, S. R. (1985). A trait account of social shyness. In P. Shaver (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 35–64). Beverely Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, S. R. (1988). Shyness: Introversion or neuroticism? Journal of Research in Personality, 22, 290–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, S. R., & Cheek, J. M. (1986). The role of factor analysis in the development and evaluation of personality scales. Journal of Personality, 54, 101–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, S. R., & Cheek, J. M. (1988). On the nature of self-monitoring: Problems with assessment, problems with validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 663–678.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, S. R., Cheek, J. M., & Jones, W. H. (1986). Introduction. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 1–14). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bruch, M. A. (1989). Familial and developmental antecedents of social phobia: Issues and findings. Clinical Psychology Review, 9, 37–47.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruch, M. A., Giordano, S., & Pearl, L. (1986). Differences between fearful and self-conscious shy subtypes in background and adjustment. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 172–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H. (1962). Two anxiety factors in psychiatric patients. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, 426–427.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco: Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H. (1984). A conception of shyness. In J. A. Daly & J. C. McCroskey (Eds.), Avoiding communication (pp. 39–49). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H. (1986). A theory of shyness. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 39–46). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1975). A temperament theory of personality development. New York: Wiley-Interscience.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buss, A. H., & Plomin, R. (1984). Temperament: Early-developing personality traits. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, H. (1896). Morbid shyness. British Medical Journal, 2, 805–807.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cappe, R. F., & Alden, L. E. (1986). A comparison of treatment strategies for clients functionally impaired by extreme shyness and social avoidance. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 796–801.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cappella, J. N. (1985). Production principles for turn-taking rules in social interaction: Socially anxious vs. socially secure persons. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 193–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carpentieri, A. M., & Cheek, J. M. (1985). Shyness and the physical self: Body esteem, sexuality and anhedonia. Unpublished manuscript, Wellesley College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1986). Analyzing shyness: A specific application of broader self-regulatory principles. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 173–185). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Elder, G. H., & Bern, D. J. (1988). Moving away from the world: Life-course patterns of shy children. Developmental Psychology, 24, 824–831.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M. (1979). Shyness and sociability. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Texas at Austin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M. (1982, August). Shyness and self-esteem: A personological perspective. In M. R. Leary (Chair), Recent research in social anxiety. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M. (1983). The revised Cheek and Buss Shyness Scale. Unpublished manuscript, Wellesley College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M. (1985). Toward a more inclusive integration of evolutionary biology and personality psychology [Comment]. American Psychologist, 40, 1269–1270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M. (1987). Shyness. 1987 Medical and Health Annual (pp. 497–500). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M. (1989a). Identity orientations and self-interpretation. In D. M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 275–285). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M. (1989b). Love-shy men [Review of Shyness and love]. Contemporary Psychology, 34, 791–792.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Briggs, S. R. (in press). Shyness as a personality trait. In W R. Crozier (Ed.), Shyness and embarrassment: Perspectives from social psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Busch, C. M. (1981). The influence of shyness on loneliness in a new situation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7, 572–577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Buss, A. H. (1981). Shyness and sociability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 330–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., Carpentieri, A. M., Smith, T. G., Rierdan, J., & Koff, E. (1986). Adolescent shyness. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 105–115). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Cheek, B. (1989). Conquering shyness. New York: Putnam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Hogan, R. (1983). Self-concepts, self-presentations, and moral judgments. In J. Suls & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 2, pp. 249–273). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Melchior, L. A. (1985, August). Measuring the three components of shyness. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., Melchior, L. A., & Carpentieri, A. M. (1986). Shyness and self-concept. In L. M. Hartman & K. R. Blankstein (Eds.), Perception of self in emotional disorder and psychotherapy (pp. 113–131). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Stahl, S. S. (1986). Shyness and verbal creativity. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 51–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., Tsang, M. E., & Yee, T. (1984, August). Audience anxiety and shyness as distinct varieties of social anxiety. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Baltimore.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Watson, A. K. (1989). The definition of shyness: Psychological imperialism or construct validity? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 4, 85–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cheek, J. M., & Zonderman, A. B. (1983, August). Shyness as a personality temperament. In J. M. Cheek (Chair), Progress in research on shyness. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Anaheim, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, J. V., & Arkowitz, H. (1975). Social anxiety and self-evaluation of interpersonal performance. Psychological Reports, 36, 211–221.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crozier, W. R. (1979). Shyness as anxious self-preoccupation. Psychological Reports, 44, 959–962.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crozier, W. R. (1981). Shyness and self-esteem. British Journal of Social Psychology, 20, 220–222.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crozier, W. R. (1982). Explanations of social shyness. Current Psychological Reviews, 2, 47–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crozier, W. R. (1986). Individual differences in shyness. In W H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 133–145). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Curran, J. P., Wallander, J. L., & Fischetti, M. (1980). The importance of behavioral and cognitive factors in heterosexual-social anxiety. Journal of Personality, 48, 285–292.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cutler, B. L., & Cheek, J. M. (1986, March). The independence of shyness and need for affiliation. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daly, J. A., & McCroskey, J. C. (Eds.). (1984). Avoiding communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damon, W., & Hart, D. (1982). The development of self-understanding from infancy through adolescence. Child Development, 53, 841–861.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deffenbacher, J. L., & Hazaleus, S. L. (1985). Cognitive, emotional, and physiological components of test anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 169–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deffenbacher, J. L., Zwemer, W. A., Whisman, M. A., Hill, R. A., & Sloan, R. D. (1986). Irrational beliefs and anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10, 281–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DePaulo, B. M., Dull, W. R., Greenberg, J. M., & Swaim, G. W. (1989). Are shy people reluctant to ask for help? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 834–845.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DePaulo, B. M., Kenny, D. A., Hoover, C. W., Webb, W., & Oliver, P. V. (1987). Accuracy of person perception: Do people know what kinds of impressions they convey? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 303–315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dissanayake, E. (1988). What is art for? Seattle: University of Washington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edelmann, R. J. (1985). Individual differences in embarrassment: Self-consciousness, self-monitoring, and embarrassibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 223–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Efran, J. S., & Korn, P. R. (1969). Measurement of social caution: Self-appraisal, role playing, and discussion behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 78–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elder, J. P., Edelstein, B. A., & Fremouw, W. J. (1981). Client by treatment interactions in response acquisition and cognitive restructuring approaches. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 5, 203–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, G. C. (1984). Dimensions of self-concept: A source of further distinctions in the nature of self-consciousness. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 285–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, S. (1980). The self-concept: A review and the proposal of an integrated theory of personality. In E. Staub (Ed.), Personality: Basic issues and current research (pp. 81–132). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1969). Personality structure and measurement. San Diego, CA: Knapp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fatis, M. (1983). Degree of shyness and self-reported physiological, behavioral, and cognitive reactions. Psychological Reports, 52, 351–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fehr, L. A., & Stamps, L. E. (1979). Guilt and shyness: A profile of social discomfort. Journal of Personality Assessment, 43, 481–484.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenigstein, A., Scheier, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906–911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fleming, J. S., & Courtney, B. E. (1984). The dimensionality of self-esteem: II. Hierarchical facet model for revised measurement scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 404–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flett, G. L., Blankstein, K. R., & Boase, P. (1987). Self-focused attention in test anxiety and depression. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 2, 259–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, F. W., Heath, R. F., & Chabot, D. R. (1986). Shyness and defensive style. Psychological Reports, 58, 967–973.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford, D. H. (1987). Humans as self-constructing living systems. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fox, J. E., & Houston, B. K. (1983). Distinguishing between cognitive and somatic trait and state anxiety in children. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 862–870.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Franzoi, S. L. (1983). Self-concept differences as a function of private self-consciousness and social anxiety. Journal of Research in Personality, 17, 275–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, P. G. (1980). Shyness and reticence in students. Washington, DC: National Education Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilmartin, B. G. (1987). Shyness and love: Causes, consequences, and treatment. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • Girodo, M., Dotzenroth, S. E., & Stein, S. J. (1981). Causal attribution bias in shy males: Implications for self-esteem and self-confidence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 5, 325–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glass, C. R., & Shea, C. A. (1986). Cognitive therapy for shyness and social anxiety. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 315–327). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Goldfried, M. R., Padawar, W, & Robbins, C. (1984). Social anxiety and the semantic structure of heterosocial interactions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 87–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, H. H., & Gottesman, I.I. (1981). Origins of variation in behavioral style: A longitudinal study of temperament in young twins. Child Development, 52, 91–103.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gough, H. G., & Heilbrun, A. B. (1983). The Adjective Check List manual—1983 edition. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gough, H. G., & Thorne, A. (1986). Positive, negative, and balanced shyness: Self-definitions and the reactions of others. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 205–225). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J., Pyszczynski, T., & Stine, P. (1985). Social anxiety and anticipation of future interaction as determinants of the favorability of self-presentation. Journal of Research in Personality, 19,1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, M. T., & Marvin, R. S. (1982). Reactions of preschool children to an adult stranger: A behavioral systems approach. Child Development, 53, 481–490.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greene, J. O., & Sparks, G. G. (1983). Explication and test of a cognitive model of communication apprehension. Human Communication Research, 9, 349–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35, 603–618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G. (1988). A social-cognitive account of the selfs development. In D. K. Lapsley & F. C. Power (Eds.), Self, ego, and, identity (pp. 30–42). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., Bellezza, F. S., & Banaji, M. R. (1988). Is self-esteem a central ingredient of the self-concept? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 34–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Guidano, V. F. (1986). The self as mediator of cognitive change in psychotherapy. In L. M. Hartman & K. R. Blankstein (Eds.), Perception of self in emotional disorder and psychotherapy (pp. 305–330). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Halberstadt, A. G. (1986). Family socialization of emotional expression and nonverbal communication styles and skills. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 827–836.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halford, K., & Foddy, M. (1982). Cognitive and social skills correlates of social anxiety. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21, 17–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hampton, F. A. (1927). Shyness. Journal of Neurology and Psychopathology, 8, 124–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hampson, S. E., Goldberg, L. R., & John, O. P. (1987). Category-breadth and social-desirability values for 573 personality terms. European Journal of Personality, 1, 241–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansson, R. O. (1986). Shyness and the elderly. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 117–129). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, P. R. (1984a). The hidden face of shyness: A message from the shy for researchers and practitioners. Human Relations, 37, 1079–1093.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harris, P. R. (1984b). Shyness and psychological imperialism: On the dangers of ignoring the ordinary language roots of the terms we deal with. European Journal of Social Psychology, 14,169–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harter, S. (1986). Processes underlying the construction, maintenance, and enhancement of self-concept in children. In J. Suis & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 3, pp. 137–181). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartman, L. (1983). A metacognitive model of social anxiety: Implications for treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 3, 435–456.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartman, L. M. (1986). Social anxiety, problem drinking, and self-awareness. In L. M. Hartman & K. R. Blankstein (Eds.), Perception of self in emotional disorder and psychotherapy (pp. 265–282). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hauck, W. E., Martens, M., & Wetzel, M. (1986). Shyness, group dependence, and self-concept: Attributes of the imaginary audience. Adolescence, 21, 529–534.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hill, C. A. (1987). Affiliation motivation: People who need people... but in different ways. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1008–1018.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hogan, R. (1976). Personality theory: The personological tradition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogan, R., & Cheek, J. M. (1983). Identity, authenticity, and maturity. In T. R. Sarbin & K. E. Scheibe (Eds.), Studies in social identity (pp. 339–357). New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hogan, R., Jones, W. H., & Cheek, J. M. (1985). Socioanalytic theory: An alternative to armadillo psychology. In B. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp. 175–198). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hollin, C. R., & Trower, P. (1988). Development and applications of social skills training: A review and critique. In M. Hersen, R. M. Eisler, & P. M. Miller (Eds.), Advances in behavior modification (Vol. 22, pp. 165–214). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hope, D. A., & Heimberg, R. G. (1988). Public and private self-consciousness and social phobia. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 629–639.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hugdahl, K., & Ost, L.-G. (1985). Subjectively rated physiological and cognitive symptoms in six different clinical phobias. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 175–188.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ingram, R. E., Cruet, D., Johnson, B. R., & Wisnicki, K. S. (1988). Self-focused attention, gender, gender role, and vulnerability to negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 967–978.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ishiyama, F. I. (1984). Shyness: Anxious social sensitivity and self-isolating tendency. Adolescence, 19, 903–911.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ishiyama, F. I. (1985). “Origins” of shyness: A preliminary survey on shyness-inducing critical experiences in childhood. The B. C. Counsellor [Journal of the British Columbia School Counsellor], 7(1), 26–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E., & Hyson, M. C. (1986). Shyness as a discrete emotion. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 147–160). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jacklin, C. N., Maccoby, E. E., & Doering, C. H. (1983). Neonatal sex-steroid hormones and timidity in 6–18-month-old boys and girls. Developmental Psychobiology, 16, 163–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vols. 1 & 2). New York: Holt.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • John, O. P. (1983). Searching for the people who would gladden the hearts of personality researchers: Moderator effects of self-consciousness and self-monitoring. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Oregon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, W. H., & Briggs, S. R. (1984). The self-other discrepancy in social shyness. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), The self in anxiety, stress, and depression (pp. 93–107). Amsterdam: North Holland.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, W. H., & Briggs, S. R. (1986). Manual for the Social Reticence Scale. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, W. H., Briggs, S. R., & Smith, T. G. (1986). Shyness: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 629–639.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, W. H., & Carpenter, B. N. (1986). Shyness, social behavior, and relationships. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on treatment and research (pp. 227–238). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, W. H., Cheek, J. M., & Briggs, S. R. (Eds.). (1986). Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jung, C. G. (1933). Modern man in search of a soul. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J., & Moss, H. A. (1962). Birth to maturity. New York: Wiley.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J., & Reznick, S. J. (1986). Shyness and temperament. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 81–90). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., Snidman, N., Gibbons, J., & Johnson, M. O. (1988). Childhood derivatives of inhibition and lack of inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Development, 59, 1580–1589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kahle, L. R., Kulka, R. A., & Klingel, D. M. (1980). Low adolescent self-esteem leads to multiple interpersonal problems: A test of social-adaption theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 496–502.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan, D. M. (1972). On shyness. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 53, 439–453.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keen, S. (1978). Deliver us from shyness clinics. Psychology Today, 12(3), 18–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, L., Phillips, G. M., & McKinney, B. (1982). Reprise: Farewell reticence, good-by apprehension! Building a practical nosology of speech communication problems. Communication Education, 31, 211–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Heath, A. C., Martin, N. G., & Eaves, L. J. (1987). Symptoms of anxiety and symptoms of depression: Same genes, different environments? Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 451–457.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kirsch, I. (1986). Response expectancy and phobic anxiety: A reply to Wilkins and Bandura [Comment]. American Psychologist, 41, 1391–1393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klopf, D. W. (1984). Cross-cultural apprehension research: A summary of Pacific Basin Studies. In J. A. Daly & J. C. McCroskey (Eds.), Avoiding communication (157–169). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lake, E. A., & Arkin, R. M. (1983, August). Social anxiety and reactions to interpersonal evaluative information. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Anaheim, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (1982). Individual differences in infant sociability: Their origins and implications for cognitive development. In H. W. Reese & L. P. Lipsett (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 16, pp. 213–239). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langer, E. (1978). Rethinking the role of thought in social interaction. In J. H. Harvey, W. Ickes, & R. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attribution research (Vol. 2, pp. 148–173). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langston, C. A., & Cantor, N. (1989). Social anxiety and social constraint: When making friends is hard. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 649–661.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, P. J. (1982a). Incidence of shyness in elementary-school age children. Psychological Reports, 51, 904–906.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, P. J. (1982b). Correlation of shyness and self-esteem for elementary school children. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 55, 8–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leahy, R. L. (1985). The costs of development: Clinical implications. In R. L. Leahy (Ed.), The development of the self (pp. 267–294). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R. (1983). Social anxiousness: The construct and its measurement. Journal of Personality Assessment, 47, 66–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R. (1986). Affective and behavioral components of shyness. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 27–38). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Atherton, S. C. (1986). Self-efficacy, social anxiety, and inhibition in interpersonal encounters. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 256–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Atherton, S. C., Hill, S., & Hur, C. (1986). Attributional mediators of social inhibition and avoidance. Journal of Personality, 54, 704–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., & Dobbins, S. E. (1983). Social anxiety, sexual behavior, and contraceptive use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 1347–1354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., & Bergen, D. J. (1988). Interpersonal information acquisition and confidence in first encounters. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 14, 68–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., & Campbell, C. D. (1988). Self-presentational concerns and social anxiety: The role of generalized impression expectancies. Journal of Research in Personality, 22, 308–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, H., Baldwin, A. L., Gallwey, M., & Paivio, A. (1960). Audience stress, personality, and speech. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 469–473.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsky, H. (1941). The nature of shyness. British Journal of Psychology, 32(2), 105–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebman, W. E., & Cheek, J. M. (1983, August). Shyness and body image. In J. M. Cheek (Chair), Progress in research on shyness. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Anaheim, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebowitz, M. R., Gorman, J. M., Fyer, A. J., Campeas, R., Levin, A. P., Sandberg, D., Hollander, E., Papp, L., & Goetz, D. (1988). Pharmacotherapy of social phobia: An interim report of a placebo-controlled comparison of phenelzine and atenolol. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 49, 252–257.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liebowitz, M. R., Gorman, J. M., Fyer, A. J., & Klein, D. F. (1985). Social phobia: Review of a neglected disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 729–736.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maddux, J. E., Norton, L. W., & Leary, M. R. (1988). Cognitive components of social anxiety: An investigation of the integration of self-presentation theory and self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6, 180–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mamrus, L. M., O’Connor, C., & Cheek, J. M. (1983, April). Vocational certainty as a dimension of self-esteem in college women. Paper presented at the meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maroldo, G. K. (1986a). Shyness, boredom, and grade point average among college students. Psychological Reports, 59, 395–398.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maroldo, G. K. (1986b). Shyness and alcohol response expectancy hypothesis—Social situations [Comment]. American Psychologist, 41, 1386–1387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maslow, A. H. (1942). The dynamics of psychological security-insecurity. Character and Personality, 10, 331–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McAdams, D. P. (1985). The “imago”: A key narrative component of identity. In P. Shaver (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 115–141). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCroskey, J. C., & Beatty, M. J. (1986). Oral communication apprehension. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 279–293). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • McDougall, W. (1963). An introduction to social psychology (31st ed.). London: Methuen. (1st ed. published 1908; 23rd ed. published 1936).

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwan, K. L., & Devins, G. M. (1983). Is increased arousal in social anxiety noticed by others? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 92, 417–421.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehrabian, A. (1976). Questionnaire measures of affiliative tendency and sensitivity to rejection. Psychological Reports, 38, 199–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melchior, L. A., & Cheek, J. M. (1987). [Shyness correlations.] Unpublished raw data, University of Michigan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melchior, L. A., & Cheek, J. M. (in press). Shyness and anxious self-preoccupation during a social interaction. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, R. G. (1983). The clinician’s handbook. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, W. R., & Arkowitz, H. (1977). Anxiety and perceived causation in social success and failure experiences: Disconfirmation of an attribution hypothesis in two experiments. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 665–668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, D. P., Soroker, M. A., & A Burruss (1954). Follow-up studies of shy, withdrawn children: I. Evaluation of later adjustment. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 24, 743–754.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mosher, D. L., & White, B. B. (1981). On differentiating shame and shyness. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 61–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moskowitz, D. S., Ledingham, J. E., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1985). Stability and change in aggression and withdrawal in middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 30–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, G. (1947). Personality: A biosocial approach to origins and structure. New York: Harper.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Nocita, A., & Stiles, W. B. (1986). Client introversion and counseling session impact. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 33, 235–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Banion, K., & Arkowitz, H. (1977). Social anxiety and selective memory for affective information about the self. Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 321–328.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson, M. L., & Strauss, M. E. (1972). An examination of the discriminant validity of the social avoidance and distress scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39, 169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pervin, L. A. (Ed.). (1989). Goal concepts in personality and social psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, G. M., & Metzger, N. J. (1973). The reticent syndrome: Some theoretical considerations about etiology and treatment. Speech Monographs, 40, 220–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, S. D., & Bruch, M. A. (1988). Shyness and dysfunction in career development. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 159–165.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pilkonis, P. A. (1977a). Shyness, public and private, and its relationship to other measures of social behavior. Journal of Personality, 45, 585–595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pilkonis, P. A. (1977b). The behavioral consequences of shyness. Journal of Personality, 45, 596–611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pilkonis, P. A., Heape, C., & Klein, R. H. (1980). Treating shyness and other psychiatric difficulties in psychiatric outpatients. Communication Education, 29, 250–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pilkonis, P. A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1979). The personal and social dynamics of shyness. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality and psychopathology (pp. 133–160). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Plomin, R., & Daniels, D. (1986). Genetics and shyness. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 63–80). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Plomin, R., & Rowe, D. C. (1979). Genetic and environmental etiology of social behavior in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 15, 62–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plutarch A (1906). Of bashfulness. In Plutarch’s essays and miscellanies. Boston: Little, Brown.

    Google Scholar 

  • Read, S. J., & Miller, L. C. (1989). Inter-personalism: Toward a goal-based theory of persons in relationships. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), Goal concepts in personality and social psychology (pp. 413–472). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richmond, V. P., Beatty, M. J., & Dyba, P. (1985). Shyness and popularity: Children’s views. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 49, 116–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riley, T., Adams, G. R., & Nielsen, E. (1984). Adolescent egocentrism: The associations among imaginary audience behavior, cognitive development, and parental support and rejection. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 13, 401–417.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roopnarine, J. L. (1985). Changes in peer-directed behaviors following preschool experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 740–745.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rushton, J. P. (1988). Race differences in behavior: A review and evolutionary analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 9, 1009–1024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D., Cutrona, C., & Jones, W. H. (1986). A trait-situational analysis of shyness. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs, (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 239–249). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Santee, R. T., & Maslach, C. (1982). To agree or not to agree: Personal dissent and social pressure to conform. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 690–700.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarason, I. G. (1988). Anxiety, self-preoccupation and attention. Anxiety Research, 1, 3–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scarr, S. (1987). Personality and experience: Individual encounters with the world. In J. Aronoff, A. I. Rabin, & R. A. Zucker (Eds.), The emergence of-personality (pp. 49–78). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schalling, D. S. (1975). Types of anxiety and types of stressors as related to personality. In C. D. Spielberger & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (Vol. 1, pp. 279–283). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1982). Social anxiety and self-presentation: A conceptualization and model. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 641–669.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlenker, B. R., & Leary, M. R. (1985). Social anxiety and communication about the self. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 171–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder, J. E. (1989, April). Self processes and interpersonal perception. Paper presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association, Reno, NV.

    Google Scholar 

  • Semin, G. R., Rosch, E., & Chassein, J. (1981). A comparison of the common-sense and “scientific” conceptions of extroversion-introversion. European Journal of Social Psychology, 11, 77–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shedlack, S. M. (1987). The definition and development of shyness. Unpublished B. A. honors thesis, Wellesley College.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sigelman, C. K., Carr, M. B., & Begley, N. L. (1986). Developmental changes in the influence of sex-role stereotypes on person perception. Child Study Journal, 16, 191–205.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, R. E., & Sarason, I. G. (1975). Social anxiety and the evaluation of negative interpersonal feedback. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 429.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. W., Ingram, R. E., & Brehm, S. S. (1983). Social anxiety, anxious self-preoccupation, and recall of self-relevant information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44, 1276–1283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snell, W. E., Jr. (1989). Willingness to self-disclose to female and male friends as a function of social anxiety and gender. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 113–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder, C. R., & Smith, T. W. (1986). On being “shy like a fox”: A self-handicapping analysis. In W. H. Jones, J. M. Cheek, & S. R. Briggs, (Eds.), Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment (pp. 161–172). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson-Hinde, J., & Hinde, R. A. (1986). Changes in associations between characteristics and interactions. In R. Plomin & J. Dunn (Eds.), The study of temperament: Changes, continuities, and challenges (pp. 115–129). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (1985). Attachment classification from the perspective of infant-caregiver relationships and infant temperament. Child Development, 56, 1–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swann, W. B., Jr. (1987). Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1038–1051.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Teglasi, H., & Hoffman, M. A. (1982). Causal attributions of shy subjects. Journal of Research in Personality, 16, 376–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorne, A. (1989). Conditional patterns, transference, and the coherence of personality across time. In D. M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 149–159). New York: Springer-Verlag.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Thyer, B. A. (1987). Treating anxiety disorders. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Traub, G. S. (1983). Correlations of shyness with depression, anxiety, and academic performance. Psychological Reports, 52, 849–850.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, R. G. (1977). Self-consciousness and anticipatory belief change. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 3, 438–441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, S. M., & Beidel, D. C. (1985). Empirically derived subtypes of social anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 16, 384–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, A. K., & Cheek, J. M. (1986). Shyness situations: Perspectives of a diverse sample of shy females. Psychological Reports, 59, 1040–1042.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, A. K., & Dodd, C. H. (in press). Communication apprehension and rational emotive therapy: An interview with Dr. Albert Ellis. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465–490.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D., & Friend, R. (1969). Measurement of social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33, 448–457.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. H. (1965). Evidence for a hierarchical arrangement of learning processes. In L. P. Lipsitt & C. C. Spiker (Eds.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 187–220). New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, D. P. (1958). The woman who has not married. Family Life, 33(10), 1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wink, P., & Cheek, J. M. (1989). [Shyness correlations). Unpublished raw data, University of California, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolfe, R. N., Lennox, R. D., & Cutler, B. L. (1986). Getting along and getting ahead: Empirical support for a theory of protective and acquisitive self-presentation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 356–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, M. B. (1930). Shyness. Psyche, 11, 32–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wurf, E., & Markus, H. (1983, August). Cognitive consequences of the negative self. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Anaheim, CA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo, P. G. (1977). Shyness. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo, P. G., Pilkonis, P., & Norwood, R. (1975). The social disease called shyness. Psychology Today, 8, 69–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimbardo, P. G., & Radl, S. (1981). The shy child. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Massachusetts, 02181, USA

    Jonathan M. Cheek

  2. The Measurement Group, 6245 Bristol Parkway, Suite 242, Culver City, California, 90230, USA

    Lisa A. Melchior

Authors
  1. Jonathan M. Cheek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lisa A. Melchior
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, USA

    Harold Leitenberg

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1990 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cheek, J.M., Melchior, L.A. (1990). Shyness, Self-Esteem, and Self-Consciousness. In: Leitenberg, H. (eds) Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2504-6_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2504-6_3

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-2506-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-2504-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation