Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Temperamental Risk Factors for Pediatric Anxiety Disorders

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pediatric Anxiety Disorders

Part of the book series: Current Clinical Psychiatry ((CCPSY))

Abstract

Fearful temperament, most often conceptualized as behavioral inhibition, has been found to be a robust predictor for the development of pediatric anxiety disorders, with most evidence suggesting a link with social anxiety disorder. In addition to a detailed review of behavioral inhibition, recent work that supports a new construct, dysregulated fear, is also reviewed in this chapter. New evidence is presented that demonstrates that dysregulated fear is conceptually and methodologically distinct from behavioral inhibition and improves the prediction of which fearful toddlers are at risk for pediatric anxiety disorders. The following review will summarize the empirical bases for these two approaches and their role in the development of anxiety disorders, as well as evidence for biomarkers, executive processes, and parenting environment that exacerbate or ameliorate this early temperament risk. Specifically, research on fearful temperament has identified multiple trajectories and outcomes for children with the same underlying temperamental biases. That is, not all young children who display fearful temperament maintain this behavioral profile or develop anxiety symptoms. Therefore, this chapter summarizes evidence for biological, regulatory, and parental processes that account for these divergent trajectories and addresses the question of which fearful children are at highest risk for developing anxiety disorders.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Asendorpf JB. Development of inhibition during childhood: evidence for situational specificity and a two-factor model. Dev Psychol. 1990;26(5):721–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Biederman J, Rosenbaum JF, Bolduc-Murphy EA, Faraone SV, Chaloff J, Hirshfeld DR, et al. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(4):814–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Biederman J, Hirshfield-Becker DR, Rosenbaum JF, Herot C, Friedman D, Snidman N. Further evidence of association between behavioral inhibition and social anxiety in children. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(10):1673–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Biederman J, Henin A, Faraone SV, Davis S, Harrington K, et al. Behavioral inhibition in preschool children at risk is a specific predictor of middle childhood social anxiety: a five-year follow-up. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2007;28(3):225–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Micco J, Henin A, Bloomfield A, Biederman J, Rosenbaum J. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(4):357–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Ollendick TH, Hirshfeld-Becker DR. Biol Psychiatry. 2002;51(1):44–58 [Review].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Rubin KH, Stewart SL. Social withdrawal. In: Mash EJ, editor. Child psychopathology. New York: Guilford; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Chronis-Tuscano A, Degnan KA, Pine DS, Perez-Edgar K, Henderson HA, Diaz Y, et al. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48(9):928–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Buss KA. Which fearful toddlers should we worry about? Context, fear regulation, and anxiety risk. Dev Psychol. 2011;47(3):804–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Goldsmith HH, Buss AH, Plomin R, Rothbart MK, Thomas A, Chess S, et al. Child Dev. 1987;58(2):505–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Rothbart MK, Bates JE. Temperament. In: Damon W, Lerner R, Eisenberg N, editors. Handbook of child psychology, Social, emotional, and personality development. 6th ed. Hoboken: Wiley; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Goldsmith HH, Campos JJ. Fundamental issues in the study of early temperament: the Denver twin temperament study. In: Lamb ME, Brown AL, Rogoff B, editors. Advances in developmental psychology, vol. 4. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Goldsmith HH. Temperament: variability in developing emotion systems. In: Lewis M, Haviland JM, editors. Handbook of emotions. New York: Guilford; 1993. p. 353–64.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Rothbart MK, Bates JE. Temperament. In: Damon W, Eisenberg N, editors. Handbook of child psychology, Social, emotional, and personality development, vol. 3. New York: Wiley; 1998. p. 105–76.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Kagan J. Galen’s prophecy. Temperament in human nature. Boulder: Westview; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Zentner M, Bates JE. Child temperament: an integrative review of concepts, research programs, and measures. Eur J Dev Sci. 2008;2:7–37.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Kagan J, Fox NA. Biology, culture, and temperamental biases. In: Damon W, Eisenberg N, editors. Handbook of child psychology, Social, emotional, and personality development, vol. 3. Hoboken: Wiley; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Cicchetti D. The emergence of developmental psychopathology. Child Dev. 1984;55(1):1–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Sroufe LA, Rutter M. The domain of developmental psychopathology. Child Dev. 1984;55:17–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Rutter M, Sroufe LA. Developmental psychopathology: concepts and challenges. Dev Psychopathol. 2008;12:265–96.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Bosquet M, Egeland B. The development and maintenance of anxiety symptoms from infancy through adolescence in a longitudinal sample. Dev Psychopathol. 2006;18(2):517–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Rubin KH, Stewart SL. Social withdrawal. In: Mash EJ, editor. Child psychopathology. New York: Guilford; 1996. p. 277–307.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Rubin KH, Burgess KB, Hastings PD. Stability and social-behavioral consequences of toddlers’ inhibited temperament and parenting behaviors. Child Dev. 2002;73(2):483–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Rubin KH, Lollis SP. Origins and consequences of social withdrawal. In: Belsky J, Nezworski T, editors. Clinical implications of attachment. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1988. p. 219–52.

    Google Scholar 

  25. LeMare LJ, Rubin KH. Perspective taking and peer interaction: structural and developmental analysis. Child Dev. 1987;58(2):306–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Rubin KH, Daniels-Beirness T, Bream L. Social isolation and social problem solving: a longitudinal study. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1984;52(1):17–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Fox NA, Calkins SD. Pathways to aggression and social withdrawal: interactions among temperament, attachment, and regulation. In: Rubin KH, Asendorpf JB, editors. Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Gazelle H, Rubin KH. Social anxiety in childhood: bridging developmental and clinical perspectives. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev. 2010;2010(127):1–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Perez-Edgar K, Fox NA. Temperament and anxiety disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2005;14(4):681–706, viii [Review].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Kagan J, Fox NA. Biology, culture, and temperamental bias. In: Eisenberg N (ed). Handbook of child development, social, emotional, and personality development, vol. 3. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons; 2006. p. 163–225.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Degnan K, Fox NA. Behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorders: multiple levels of a resilience process. Dev Psychopathol. 2007;19:729–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Micco J, Henin A, Bloomfield A, Biderman J, Rosenbaum J. Behavioral inhibition. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25:357–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Thomas A, Chess S. Temperament and development. New York: New York University Press; 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Rothbart MK. Measurement of temperament in infancy. Child Dev. 1981;52:569–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Rothbart MK, Ahadi SA, Hershey KL, Fisher P. Investigations of temperament at three to seven years: the children’s behavior questionnaire. Child Dev. 2001;72(5):1394–408.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Goldsmith HH. Studying temperament via construction of the toddler behavior assessment questionnaire. Child Dev. 1996;67(1):218–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Garcia-Coll C, Kagan J, Reznick JS. Behavioral inhibition in young children. Child Dev. 1984;55:1005–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Kagan J, Reznick JS, Clarke C, Snidman N, Garcia-Coll C. Behavioral inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Dev. 1984;55:2212–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Kagan J, Reznick JS, Snidman N. Biological bases of childhood shyness. Science. 1988;240:167–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Reznick JS, Kagan J, Snidman N, Gersten M, Baak K, Rodenberg A. Inhibited and uninhibited children: a follow-up study. Child Dev. 1986;57:660–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Calkins SD, Fox NA, Marshall TR. Child Dev. 1996;67(2):523–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Pfeifer M, Goldsmith HH, Davidson RJ, Rickman M. Continuity and change in inhibited and uninhibited children. Child Dev. 2002;73(5):1474–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Calkins SD, Fox NA. The relations among infant temperament, security of attachment, and behavioral inhibition at twenty-four months. Child Dev. 1992;63(6):1456–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Park SY, Belsky J, Putnam S, Crnic K. Infant emotionality, parenting, and 3-year inhibition: exploring stability and lawful discontinuity in a male sample. Dev Psychol. 1997;33(2):218–27.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Putnam SP, Stifter CA. Behavioral approach-inhibition in toddlers: prediction from infancy, positive and negative affective components, and relations with behavior problems. Child Dev. 2005;76(1):212–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Kagan J, Snidman N. Temperamental factors in human development. Am Psychol. 1991;46(8):856–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Kagan J, Snidman N. Infant predictors of inhibited and uninhibited profiles. Psychol Sci. 1991;2:40–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Kagan J, Reznick JS, Snidman N, Gibbons J, Johnson MO. Childhood derivatives of inhibition and lack of inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Dev. 1988;59(6):1580–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Degnan KA, Henderson HA, Fox NA, Rubin KH. Predicting social wariness in middle childhood: the moderating roles of child care history, maternal personality and maternal behavior. Soc Dev. 2008;17(3):471–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Fox NA, Henderson HA, Rubin KH, Calkins SD, Schmidt LA. Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Dev. 2001;72(1):1–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Hane AA, Fox NA, Henderson HA, Marshall PJ. Behavioral reactivity and approach-withdrawal bias in infancy. Dev Psychol. 2008;44(5):1491–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Asendorpf JB. Development of inhibited children’s coping with unfamiliarity. Child Dev. 1991;62:1460–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Davidson RJ, Rickman M. Behavioral inhibition and the emotional circuitry of the brain: stability and plasticity during the early childhood years. In: Schmidt LA, Schulkin J, editors. Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes, Series in affective science. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Ram N, Grimm K. Using simple and complex growth models to articulate developmental change: matching theory to method. Int J Behav Dev. 2007;31:303–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Ram N, Grimm K. Growth mixture modeling: a method for identifying differences in longitudinal change among unobserved groups. Int J Behav Dev. 2009;33:565–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Ram N, Grimm KJ, Gatzke-Kopp LM, Molenaar PCM. Longitudinal mixture models and the identification of archetypes: action-adventure, mystery, science fiction, fantasy, or romance? In: Laursen B, Little T, Card N, editors. Handbook of developmental research methods. New York: Guilford; 2012. p. 481–500.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Grimm KJ, Ram N, Hamagami F. Child Dev. 2011;82(5):1357–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Davidson RJ, Jackson DC, Kalin NH. Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: perspectives for affective neuroscience. Psychol Bull. 2000;126:890–906.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Buss KA, Davidson RJ, Kalin NH, Goldsmith HH. Context specific freezing and associated physiological reactivity as a dysregulated fear response. Dev Psychol. 2004;40(4):583–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Fox NA, Henderson HA, Marshall PJ, Nicols KE, Ghera MM. Behavioral inhibition: linking biology and behavior within a developmental framework. Annu Rev Psychol. 2005;56:235–62 [Review].

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Davidson RJ. Asymmetric brain function, affective style, and psychopathology: the role of early experience and plasticity. Dev Psychopathol. 1994;6(4):741–58. Special Issue: Neural plasticity, sensitive periods, and psychopathology.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Vasey MW, Dadds MR. The developmental psychopathology of anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Hirshfeld-Becker DR, Micco JA, Simoes NA, Henin A. High risk studies and developmental antecedents of anxiety disorders. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2008;148C(2):99–117.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Kerns KA, Siener S, Brumariu LE. Mother-child relationships, family context, and child characteristics as predictors of anxiety symptoms in middle childhood. Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23:593–604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Gazelle H, Workman JO, Allan W. Anxious solitude and clinical disorder in middle childhood: bridging developmental and clinical approaches to childhood social anxiety. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2010;38(1):1–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Hirshfeld DR, Rosenbaum JF, Biederman J, Bolduc EA, Faraone SV, Snidman N, et al. Stable behavioral inhibition and its association with anxiety disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(1):103–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Cole PM, Martin SE, Dennis TA. Emotion regulation as a scientific construct: methodological challenges and directions for child development research. Child Dev. 2004;75(2):317–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Goldsmith HH, Davidson RJ. Disambiguating the components of emotion regulation. Child Dev. 2004;75(2):361–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Kalin NH. The neurobiology of fear. Sci Am. 1993;268(5):94–101.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Kalin NH, Shelton SE, Davidson RJ. Role of the primate orbitofrontal cortex in mediating anxious temperament. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62(10):1134–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Buss KA, Goldsmith HH. Manual and normative data for the laboratory temperament assessment battery—toddler version. Madison: University of Wisconsin; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Nachmias M, Gunnar M, Mangelsdorf S, Parritz RH, Buss KA. Behavioral inhibition and stress reactivity: the moderating role of attachment security. Child Dev. 1996;67(2):508–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Buss KA, Davis EL, Kiel EJ, Brooker RJ, Beekman C, Early MC. Dysregulated fear predicts social wariness and social anxiety symptoms during kindergarten. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2013;1–14. doi: 10.1080/15374416.2013.769170.

  74. Dennis TA, Buss KA, Hastings PD. Physiological measures of emotion from a developmental perspective: state of the science. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 2012;72(2).

    Google Scholar 

  75. Cicchetti D, Gunnar MR. Integrating biological processes into the design and evaluation of preventive interventions. Dev Psychopathol. 2008;20(3):737–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Bauer AM, Quas JA, Boyce WT. Associations between physiological reactivity and children’s behavior: advantages of a multisystem approach. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2002;23(2):102–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Rothbart MK. Becoming who we are: temperament and personality in development. New York: Guilford; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Kagan J, Snidman N, Arcus D. Initial reaction to unfamiliarity. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 1992;1:171–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. van West D, Claes S, Sulon J, Debouette D. Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal reactivity in prepubertal children with social phobia. J Affect Disord. 2008;111(2–3):281–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Buss KA, Davis EL, Kiel EJ. Allostatic and environmental load in toddlers predicts anxiety in preschool and kindergarten. Dev Psychopathol. 2011;23(4):1069–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Granger DA, Stansbury K, Henker B. Preschoolers’ behavioral and neuroendocrine responses to social challenge. Merrill Palmer Q. 1994;40:190–211.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Perez-Edgar K, Schmidt LA, Henderson HA, Schulkin J, Fox NA. Salivary cortisol levels and infant temperament shape developmental trajectories in boys at risk for behavioral maladjustment. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2008;33(7):916–25.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Schmidt LA, Fox NA, Rubin KH, Sternberg EM, Gold PW, Smith CC, et al. Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses in shy children. Dev Psychobiol. 1997;30(2):127–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Schmidt LA, Fox NA, Schulkin J, Gold PW. Behavioral and psychophysiological correlates of self-presentation in temperamentally shy children. Dev Psychobiol. 1999;35(2):119–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Tarullo AR, Mliner S, Gunnar MR. Inhibition and exuberance in preschool classrooms: associations with peer social experiences and changes in cortisol across the preschool year. Dev Psychol. 2011;47(5):1374–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Essex MJ, Klein MH, Slattery MJ, Goldsmith HH, Kalin NH. Early risk factors and developmental pathways to chronic high inhibition and social anxiety disorder in adolescence. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(1):40–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Gunnar MR, Adam EK. What can neuroendocrine measures reveal about emotion? In: Dennis TA, Buss KA, Hastings PD, editors. Physiological measures of emotion from a developmental perspective: state of the science. Monogr t Soc Res Child Dev. 2012;72(2):109–19.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Boyce TW, Quas J, Alkon A, Smider NA, Essex MJ, Kupfer DJ. Autonomic reactivity and psychopathology in middle childhood. MacArthur Assessment Battery Working Group of the MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Psychopathology and Development. Br J Psychiatry. 2001;179:144–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Beauchaine T. Vagal tone, development, and Gray’s motivational theory: toward an integrated model of autonomic nervous system functioning in psychopathology. Dev Psychopathol. 2001;13(2):183–214 [Review].

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Kagan J, Reznick JS, Snidman N. The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Dev. 1987;58:1459–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Kagan J, Reznick JS, Snidman N. Temperamental influences on reactions to unfamiliarity and challenge. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1988;245:319–39.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Berntson GG, Cacioppo JT, Quigley KS. Autonomic cardiac control. I. Estimation and validation from pharmacological blockades. Psychophysiology. 1994;31(6):572–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. McGrath JJ, O’Brien WH. Pediatric impedance cardiography: temporal stability and inter-task consistency. Psychophysiology. 2001;38(3):479–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Alkon A, Goldstein LH, Smider N, Essex MJ, Kupfer DJ, Boyce WT. Developmental and contextual influences on autonomic reactivity in young children. Dev Psychobiol. 2003;42(1):64–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Quigley KS, Stifter CA. A comparative validation of sympathetic reactivity in children and adults. Psychophysiology. 2006;43(4):357–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Stifter CA, Dollar JM, Cipriano EA. Temperament and emotion regulation: the role of autonomic nervous system reactivity. Dev Psychobiol. 2011;53(3):266–79.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Talge NM, Donzella B, Gunnar MR. Fearful temperament and stress reactivity among preschool-aged children. Infant Child Dev. 2008;17(4):427–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Hastings PD, De I. Parasympathetic regulation and parental socialization of emotion: biopsychosocial processes of adjustment in preschoolers. Soc Dev. 2008;17(2):211–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Propper C, Moore GA. The influence of parenting on infant emotionality: a multi-level psychobiological perspective. Dev Rev. 2006;26(4):427–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Buss KA, Davis EL. RSA and dysregulated fear: effects of context, unpublished manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  101. LeDoux JE. Emotional networks in the brain. In: Lewis M, Haviland JM, editors. Handbook of emotions. New York: Guilford; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Davidson RJ. Emotion and affective style: hemispheric substrates. Psychol Sci. 1992;3:39–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. Davidson RJ. Cerebral asymmetry, emotion and affective style. In: Davidson RJ, Hugdahl K, editors. Brain asymmetry. Cambridge: MIT Press; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Finman R, Davidson RJ, Colton MB, Straus AM, Kagan J. Psychophysiological correlates of inhibition to the unfamiliar in children. Psychophys. 1989;26:S24.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Fox NA, Rubin KH, Calkins SD, Marshall TR, Coplan RJ, Porges SW, et al. Frontal activation asymmetry and social competence at four years of age. Child Dev. 1995;66(6):1770–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Buss KA, Schumacher JR, Dolski I, Kalin NH, Goldsmith HH, Davidson RJ. Behav Neurosci. 2003;117(1):11–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Theall-Honey LA, Schmidt LA. Do temperamentally shy children process emotion differently than nonshy children? Behavioral, psychophysiological, and gender differences in reticent preschoolers. Dev Psychobiol. 2006;48(3):187–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Schmidt LA. Patterns of second-by-second resting frontal brain (EEG) asymmetry and their relation to heart rate and temperament in 9-month-old human infants. Pers Individ Dif. 2008;44:216–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  109. Shackman AJ, McMenamin BW, Maxwell JS, Greischar LL, Davidson RJ. Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortical activity and behavioral inhibition. Psychol Sci. 2009;20(12):1500–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Schwartz CE, Wright CI, Shin LM, Kagan J, Rauch SL. Inhibited and uninhibited infants “grown up”: adult amygdalar response to novelty. Science. 2003;300(5627):1952–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Pérez-Edgar K, Roberson-Nay R, Hardin MG, Poeth K, Guyer AE, Nelson EE, et al. Attention alters neural responses to evocative faces in behaviorally inhibited adolescents. Neuroimage. 2007;35(4):1538–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Guyer AE, Nelson EE, Perez-Edgar K, Hardin MG, Roberson-Nay R, Monk CS, et al. Striatal functional alteration in adolescents characterized by early childhood behavioral inhibition. J Neurosci. 2006;26(24):6399–405.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Bar-Haim Y, Fox NA, Benson B, Guyer AE, Williams A, Nelson EE, et al. Neural correlates of reward processing in adolescents with a history of inhibited temperament. Psychol Sci. 2009;20(8):1009–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Helfinstein SM, Benson B, Perez-Edgar K, Bar-Haim Y, Detloff A, Pine DS, et al. Striatal responses to negative monetary outcomes differ between temperamentally inhibited and non-inhibited adolescents. Neuropsychologia. 2011;49(3):479–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Vasey MW, Daleiden EL, Williams LL, Brown LM. Biased attention in childhood anxiety disorders: a preliminary study. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1995;23(2):267–79.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Bar-Haim Y, Dan O, Eshel Y, Sagi-Schwartz A. Predicting children’s anxiety from early attachment relationships. J Anxiety Disord. 2007;21(8):1061–8. Epub 2007 Jan 10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Fox E. Processing emotional facial expressions: the role of anxiety and awareness. Cogn Affect Behav Neurosci. 2002;2(1):52–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Crockenberg SC, Leerkes EM. Infant and maternal behaviors regulate infant reactivity to novelty at 6 months. Dev Psychol. 2004;40(6):1123–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Johnson MH, Posner MI, Rothbart MK. Components of visual orienting in early infancy: contingency learning, anticipatory looking, and disengaging. J Cogn Neurosci. 1991;3:335–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Kiel EJ, Buss KA. Prospective relations among fearful temperament, protective parenting, and social withdrawal: the role of maternal accuracy in a moderated mediation framework. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2011;39:953–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Crockenberg SC, Leerkes EM. Infant and maternal behavior moderate reactivity to novelty to predict anxious behavior at 2.5 years. Dev Psychopathol. 2006;18(1):17–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Reeb-Sutherland BC, Vanderwert RE, Degnan KA, Marshall PJ, Pérez-Edgar K, Chronis-Tuscano A, et al. Attention to novelty in behaviorally inhibited adolescents moderates risk for anxiety. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2009;50(11):1365–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Pérez-Edgar K, McDermott JN, Korelitz K, Degnan KA, Curby TW, Pine DS, et al. Patterns of sustained attention in infancy shape the developmental trajectory of social behavior from toddlerhood through adolescence. Dev Psychol. 2010;46(6):1723–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Pérez-Edgar K, Bar-Haim Y, McDermott JM, Chronis-Tuscano A, Pine DS, Fox NA. Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal. Emotion. 2010;10(3):349–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. White LK, McDermott JM, Degnan KA, Henderson HA, Fox NA. Behavioral inhibition and anxiety: the moderating roles of inhibitory control and attention shifting. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2011;39(5):735–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Sportel BE, Nauta MH, de Hullu E, de Jong PJ, Hartman CA. Behavioral Inhibition and attentional control in adolescents: robust relationships with anxiety and depression. J Child Fam Stud. 2011;20(2):149–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Hakamata Y, Lissek S, Bar-Haim Y, Britton JC, Fox NA, Leibenluft E, et al. Attention bias modification treatment: a meta-analysis toward the establishment of novel treatment for anxiety. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;68:982–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Shechner T, Britton JC, Pérez-Edgar K, Bar-Haim Y, Ernst M, Fox NA, et al. Attention biases, anxiety, and development: toward or away from threats or rewards? Depress Anxiety. 2012;29:282–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Eldar S, Apter A, Lotan D, Perez-Edgar K, Naim R, Fox NA, et al. Attention bias modification treatment for pediatric anxiety disorders: a randomized control trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:213–22.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Goldsmith HH, Lemery K. Linking temperamental fearfulness and anxiety symptoms: a behavior genetics perspective. Biol Psychiatry. 2000;48:1199–209.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Eley TC, Bolton D, O’Connor TG, Perrin S, Smith P, Plomin R. A twin study of anxiety-related behaviours in pre-school children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2003;44:945–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. DiLalla LF, Kagan J, Reznick JS. Genetic etiology of behavioral inhibition among 2-year-old children. Infant Behav Dev. 1994;17:405–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Emde RN, Plomin R, Robinson J, Corley R, DeFries J, Fulker DW, et al. Temperament, emotion, and cognition at 14 months: the MacArthur longitudinal twin study. Child Dev. 1992;63:1437–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Matheny Jr AP. Children’s behavioral inhibition over age and across situations: genetic similarity for a trait during change. J Pers. 1989;57:215–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Plomin R, Rowe DC. Genetic and environmental etiology of social behavior in infancy. Dev Psychol. 1979;15:62–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Robinson JL, Kagan J, Reznick JS, Corley R. The heritability of inhibited and uninhibited behavior: a twin study. Dev Psychol. 1992;28:1030–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  137. DiLalla LF, Falligant EL. An environmental and behavioral genetic perspective on behavioral inhibition in toddlers. In: DiLalla LF, Dollinger SMC, editors. Assessment of biological mechanisms across the lifespan. Hillside: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1995. p. 91–119.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Goldsmith HH, Gottesman II. Origins of variation in behavioral style: a longitudinal study of temperament in young twins. Child Dev. 1981;52:91–103.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Matheny Jr AP, Dolan AB, Wilson RS. Within-pair similarity on Bayley’s infant behavior record. J Genet Psychol. 1976;128:263–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Braungart JM, Plomin R. Genetic influence on change in temperament. Paper presented at the eighth International Conference on Infant Studies, Miami, FL; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Plomin R, DeFries JC, Fulker DW. Nature and nurture during infancy and early childhood. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1988.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  142. Brooker RJ, Neiderhiser JM, Kiel EJ, Leve LD, Shaw DS, Reiss D. The association between infants’ attention control and social inhibition is moderated by genetic and environmental risk for anxiety. Infancy. 2011;16(5):490–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH. Research review: genetic vulnerability or differential susceptibility in child development: the case of attachment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2007;48:1160–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Belsky J, Pluess M. Beyond diathesis stress: differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychol Bull. 2009;135:885–908.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Battaglia M, Bajo S, Strambi LF, Brambilla F, Castronovo C, Vanni G, et al. Physiological and behavioral responses to minor stressors in offspring of patients with panic disorder. J Psychiatr Res. 1997;31:365–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Manassis K, Bradley S, Goldberg S, Hood J, Swinson R. Behavioral inhibition, attachment, and anxiety in children of mothers with anxiety disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 1995;40:87–92.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Rosenbaum JF, Biederman J, Hirshfeld-Becker DP, Kagan J, Snidman N, Friedman D, et al. A controlled study of behavioral inhibition in children of parents with panic disorder and depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:2002–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Warren SL, Gunnar MR, Kagan J, Anders TF, Simmens SJ, Rones M, et al. Maternal panic disorder: infant temperament, neurophysiology, and parenting behaviors. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42:814–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Shamir-Essakow G, Ungerer JA, Rapee RM. Attachment, behavioral inhibition, and anxiety in preschool children. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2005;33:131–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Olino TM, Klein DN, Dyson MW, Rose SA, Durbin EC. Temperamental emotionality in preschool-aged children and depressive disorders in parents: associations in a large community sample. J Abnorm Psychol. 2010;119:468–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Maccoby EE, Martin J. Socialization in the context of the family: parent-child interaction. In: Hetherington EM, editor. Handbook of child psychology, Socialization, personality, and social development, vol. IV. New York: Wiley; 1983. p. 1–102.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Pettit G, Bates J. Family interaction patterns and children’s behavior problems from infancy to 4 years. Dev Psychol. 1989;25:413–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  153. Stams GJM, Juffer F, van IJzendoorn MH. Maternal sensitivity, infant attachment, and temperament in early childhood predict adjustment in middle childhood: the case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Dev Psychol. 2002;38:806–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Early DM, Rimm-Kaufman SE, Cox MJ, Saluja G, Pianta RC, Bradley RH, et al. Maternal sensitivity and child wariness in the transition to kindergarten. Parent Sci Pract. 2002;2:355–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  155. Engfer A. Antecedents and consequences of shyness in boys and girls: a 6-year longitudinal study. In: Rubin KH, Asendorpf JB, editors. Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 1993. p. 49–79.

    Google Scholar 

  156. Warren SL, Simmens SJ. Predicting toddler anxiety/depressive symptoms: effects of caregiver sensitivity of temperamentally vulnerable children. Infant Ment Health J. 2005;26:40–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  157. Glöggler B, Pauli-Pott U. Different fear-regulation behaviors in toddlerhood: relations to preceding infant negative emotionality, maternal depression, and sensitivity. Merrill Palmer Q. 2008;54:86–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Gazelle H, Spangler T. Early childhood anxious solitude and subsequent peer relationships: maternal and cognitive moderators. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2007;28:515–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Arcus D. Inhibited and uninhibited children. In: Wachs TD, Kohnstamm GA, editors. Temperament in context. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  160. Mount KS, Crockenberg SC, Jó PS, Wagar JL. Maternal and child correlates of anxiety in 2½-year-old children. Infant Behav Dev. 2010;33(4):567–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Chorpita BF, Barlow DH. The development of anxiety: the role of control in the early environment. Psychol Bull. 1998;124(1):3–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Raishevich N, Kennedy SJ, Rapee RM. Expressed emotion displayed by the mothers of inhibited and uninhibited preschool-aged children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2010;39(2):187–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Becker WC. Consequences of different types of parental discipline. In: Hoffman LW, Hoffman ML, editors. Review of child development research, vol. 1. New York: Russell Sage; 1964. p. 169–208.

    Google Scholar 

  164. Kiel EJ, Buss KA. Maternal accuracy and behavior in anticipating children’s responses to novelty: relations to fearful temperament and implications for anxiety development. Soc Dev. 2009;19(2):304–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Maccoby EE, Masters JC. Attachment and dependency. In: Mussen PH, editor. Carmichael’s manual of child psychology, vol. 2. New York: Wiley; 1970. p. 73–157.

    Google Scholar 

  166. Rubin KH, Hastings PD, Stewart SL, Henderson HA, Chen X. The consistency and concomitants of inhibition: some of the children, all of the time. Child Dev. 1997;68:467–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Hastings PD, Sullivan C, McShane KE, Coplan RJ, Utendale WT, Vyncke JD. Parental socialization, vagal regulation, and preschoolers’ anxious difficulties: direct mothers and moderated fathers. Child Dev. 2008;79:45–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Edwards SL, Rapee RM, Kennedy S. Prediction of anxiety symptoms in preschool-aged children: examination of maternal and paternal perspectives. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2010;51(3):313–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Buss KA, Kiel EJ. Do maternal protective and intrusive behaviors alleviate toddlers’ fearful distress? Int J Behav Dev. 2011;35(2):136–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Cassidy J, Berlin LJ. The insecure/ambivalent pattern of attachment: theory and research. Child Dev. 1994;65(4):971–91.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Sroufe LA, Waters E. Attachment as an organizational construct. Child Dev. 1977;48:1184–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  172. Weinfield NS, Sroufe LA, Egeland B, Carlson EA. The nature of individual differences in infant–caregiver attachment. In: Cassidy J, Shaver PR, editors. Handbook of attachment: theory, research, and clinical applications. New York: Guilford; 1999. p. 68–88.

    Google Scholar 

  173. Hudson JL, Dodd HF, Bovopoulos N. Temperament, family environment and anxiety in preschool children. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2011;39(7):939–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Spangler G, Schieche M. Emotional and adrenocortical responses of infants to the strange situation: the differential function of emotional expression. Int J Behav Dev. 1998;22:681–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  175. Sroufe LA. Attachment classification from the perspective of infant-caregiver relationships and infant temperament. Child Dev. 1985;56:1–14.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Muris P, Meesters C. Attachment, behavioral inhibition, and anxiety disorders symptoms in normal adolescents. J Psychopathol Behav Assess. 2002;24:97–106.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Muris P, van Brakel AM, Arntz A, Schouten E. Behavioral inhibition as a risk factor for the development of childhood anxiety disorders: a longitudinal study. J Child Fam Stud. 2011;20(2):157–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Warren SNL, Huston L, Egeland B, Sroufe LA. Child and adolescent anxiety disorders and early attachment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36:637–44.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Hastings PD, Rubin KH. Predicting mothers’ beliefs about preschool-aged children’s social behavior: evidence for maternal attitudes moderating child effects. Child Dev. 1999;70(3):722–41.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Rubin KH, Nelson LJ, Hastings PD, Asendorpf J. The transaction between parents’ perceptions of their children’s shyness and their parenting styles. Int J Behav Dev. 1999;23:937–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. Kiel EJ, Buss KA. Associations among toddler fearful temperament, context-specific maternal protective behavior, and maternal accuracy. Soc Dev. 2012;21(4):742–60.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Kopp CB. Regulation of distress and negative emotions: a developmental view. Dev Psychol. 1989;25:343–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. Whaley SE, Pinto A, Sigman M. Characterizing interactions between anxious mothers and their children. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1999;67:826–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Bayer JK, Sanson AV, Hemphill SA. Parent influences on early childhood internalizing difficulties. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2006;27:542–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. Kendler KS, Sham PC, MacLean CJ. The determinants of parenting: an epidemiological, multi-informant, retrospective study. Psychol Med. 1997;27:549–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Woodruff-Borden J, Morrow C, Bourland S, Cambron S. The behavior of anxious parents: examining mechanisms of transmission of anxiety from parent to child. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2002;31:364–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Hirshfeld D, Biederman J, Brody L, Faraone S. Expressed emotion toward children with behavioral inhibition: associations with maternal anxiety disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1997;36:910–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Ginsburg GS, Grover RL, Ialongo N. Parenting behaviors among anxious and non-anxious mothers: relation to concurrent and long-term child outcomes. Child Fam Behav Ther. 2004;26:23–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  189. Mills RSL, Rubin KH. Parental beliefs about problematic social behaviors in early childhood. Child Dev. 1990;61:138–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  190. Rubin KH, Mills RSL. Maternal beliefs about adaptive and maladaptive social behaviors in normal, aggressive, and withdrawn preschoolers. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1990;18:419–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Kennedy AE, Rubin KH, Hastings P, Maisel B. The longitudinal relations between child vagal tone and parenting behavior: 2 to 4 years. Dev Psychobiol. 2004;45:10–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Coplan RJ, Hastings PD, Lagacé-Séguin DG, Moulton CE. Authoritative and authoritarian mothers’ parenting goals, attributions, and emotions across different childrearing contexts. Parent Sci Pract. 2002;2:1–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  193. Chen X, Hastings PD, Rubin KH, Chen H, Cen G, Stewart SL. Child-rearing attitudes and behavioral inhibition in Chinese and Canadian toddlers: a cross-cultural study. Dev Psychol. 1998;34:677–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Rubin KH, Hemphill SA, Chen X, Hastings P, Sanson A, Lococo A, et al. Parenting beliefs and behaviors: initial findings from the international consortium for the study of social and emotional development. In: Rubin KH, Chung OB, editors. Parenting beliefs, behaviors, and parent-child relations: a cross-cultural perspective. New York: Psychology Press; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  195. Kiel EJ, Buss KA. Maternal accuracy in predicting toddlers’ behaviors and associations with toddlers’ fearful temperament. Child Dev. 2006;77(2):355–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

    Kristin A. Buss

  2. Psychology Department, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA

    Elizabeth J. Kiel

Authors
  1. Kristin A. Buss
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Elizabeth J. Kiel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kristin A. Buss .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Education and Training, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 3901 Greenspring Avenue, Baltimore, 21211, Maryland, USA

    Roma A. Vasa

  2. Fordham University, East Fordham Road 441, Bronx, 10458, New York, USA

    Amy Krain Roy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Buss, K.A., Kiel, E.J. (2013). Temperamental Risk Factors for Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. In: Vasa, R., Roy, A. (eds) Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_3

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_3

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-6598-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-6599-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation