Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Chronic Parenting Stress in Mothers of Adolescents and Adults with Autism: Vulnerability and Resilience

  • Reference work entry
Comprehensive Guide to Autism

Abstract

Relatively little research has focused on the experiences of parents of adolescent and adult children with autism spectrum disorder. Because autism symptoms and associated problems persist across the child’s life course, stressful parenting associated with caring for a child with autism spectrum disorder also persists. Midlife mothers of grown children with autism spectrum disorder lead stressful and intense daily lives, and the accumulation of daily stressful experiences over many years forms a chronic parenting stress trajectory. The chronic parenting stress trajectory contributes to vulnerability for physical and mental health problems in mothers of grown children with autism spectrum disorder. Normative life course experiences, adaptive coping, and changes in child functioning contribute to adaptation and resilience for some mothers. Enhancing social support, formal and informal, across the child’s life course is important for promoting resilience across midlife and into old age.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 1,199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 1,299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abbeduto L, Seltzer MM, Shattuck P, et al. Psychological well-being and coping in mothers of youths with autism, Down syndrome, or fragile X syndrome. Am J Ment Retard. 2004;109:237–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey DB, Golden RN, Roberts J, et al. Maternal depression and developmental disability: research critique. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2007;13:321–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baker JK, Smith LE, Greenberg JS, et al. Change in maternal criticism and behavior problems in adolescents and adults with autism across a 7-year period. J Abnorm Psychol. 2011;120(2):465–75. doi:10.1037/a0021900.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balaji AB, Claussen AH, Smith D, et al. Social support networks and maternal mental health and well-being. J Womens Health. 2007;16(10):1386–96. doi:10.1089/jwh.2007.CDC10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barker ET, Hartley SL, Seltzer MM, et al. Trajectories of emotional well-being in mothers of adolescents and adults with autism. Dev Psychol. 2010;47(2):551–61. doi:10.1037/a0021268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson PR. Coping, distress, and well-being in mothers of children with autism. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2010;4(2):217–28. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2009.09.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benson PR, Kersh J. Marital quality and psychological adjustment among mothers of children with ASD: cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41(12):1675–85. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1198-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Billstedt E, Gillberg I, Gillberg C. Aspects of quality of life in adults diagnosed with autism in childhood: a population-based study. Autism. 2011;15(1):7–20. doi:10.1177/1362361309346066.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop SL, Richler J, Albert C, et al. Predictors of perceived negative impact in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Am J Ment Retard. 2007;112:450–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd BA. Examining the relationship between stress and lack of social support in mothers of children with autism. Focus Autism Other Dev Disabil. 2002;17:208–15. doi:10.1177/10883576020170040301.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter AS, De L. Martínez-Pedraza F, Gray SO. Stability and individual change in depressive symptoms among mothers raising young children with ASD: maternal and child correlates. J Clin Psychol. 2009;65(12):1270–80. doi:10.1002/jclp.20634.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charles ST, Piazza JR. Age differences in affective well-being: context matters. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2009;3:711–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen S. Social relationships and health. Am Psychol. 2004;59:676–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlgren A, Akerstedt T, Kecklund G. Individual differences in the diurnal cortisol response to stress. Chronobiol Int. 2004;21:913–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenhower A, Blacher J. Mothers of young adults with intellectual disability: multiple roles, ethnicity and well-being. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2006;50:905–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekas NV, Whitman TL. Adaptation to daily stress among mothers of children with an autism spectrum disorder: the role of daily positive affect. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;41(9):1202–13. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1142-4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekas NV, Lickenbrock DM, Whitman TL. Optimism, social support, and well-being in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2010;40(10):1274–84. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0986-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elder GH, Johnson MK, Crosnoe R. The emergence and development of life course theory. In: Mortimer JT, Shanahan MJ, editors. Handbook of the life course. New York: Kluwer/Plenum; 2003. p. 3–19.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Fries E, Hesse J, Hellhammer J, et al. A new view on hypocortisolism. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005;30:1010–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graber JA, Brooks-Gunn J. Transitions and turning points: navigating the passage from childhood through adolescence. Dev Psychol. 1996;32:768–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gunnar MT, Vazquez DM. Low cortisol and a flattening of the expected daytime rhythm: potential indices of risk in human development. Dev Psychopathol. 2001;13:515–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ha J, Hong J, Seltzer MM, et al. Age and gender differences in the well-being of midlife and aging parents with children with mental health or developmental problems: report of a national study. J Health Soc Behav. 2008;49(3):301–16. doi:10.1177/002214650804900305.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart J, Gunnar M, Cicchetti D. Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence. Dev Psychopathol. 1995;7:11–26. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley SL, Barker ET, Seltzer MM, et al. The relative risk and timing of divorce in families of children with an autism spectrum disorder. J Fam Psychol. 2010;24(4):449–57. doi:10.1037/a0019847.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley SL, Seltzer MM, Barker ET, et al. Marital quality in families of children with developmental disabilities. In: Hodapp R, editor. International review of research in developmental disabilities. San Diego: Elsevier; 2011a. p. 1–24.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley SL, Seltzer MM, Hong J, et al. Cortisol response to behavior problems in FMR1 premutation mothers of adolescents and adults with fragile X syndrome: a diathesis-stress model. Int J Behav Dev. 2011b;36(1):53–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley SL, Seltzer MM, Head L, et al. Psychological well-being in fathers of adolescents and young adults with Down Syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and autism. Fam Relat. 2012;61(2):327–42. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2011.00693.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley SL, Barker ET, Baker J, et al. Marital satisfaction in mothers of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. J Fam Psychol. 2012;26(5):688–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hauser-Cram P, Krauss MW, Kersh J. Adolescents with developmental disabilities and their families. In: Lerner RM, Steinberg L, editors. Handbook of adolescent psychology: vol 1. Individual bases of adolescent development. 3rd ed. Hoboken: Wiley; 2009. p. 589–617.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heckhausen J, Wrosch C, Schulz R. A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychol Rev. 2010;117(1):32–60. doi:10.1037/a0017668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jorm AF, Windsor TD, Dear KB, et al. Age group differences in psychological distress: the role of psychosocial risk factors that vary with age. Psychol Med. 2005;35:1253–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kasen S, Cohen P, Chen H, et al. Depression in adult women: age changes and cohort effects. Am J Public Health. 2003;93:2061–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krauss MW, Seltzer MM, Jacobson HT. Adults with autism living at home or in non-family settings: positive and negative aspects of residential status. J Intellect Disabil Res. 2005;49:111–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kring SR, Greenberg JS, Seltzer MM. Adolescents and adults with autism with and without co-morbid psychiatric disorders: differences in maternal well-being. J Ment Health Res Intellect Disabil. 2008;1(2):53–74. doi:10.1080/19315860801988228.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kring SR, Greenberg JS, Seltzer MM. The impact of health problems on behavior problems in adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders: implications for maternal burden. Soc Work Ment Health. 2010;8(1):54–71. doi:10.1080/15332980902932441.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lach LM, Kohen DE, Garner RE, et al. The health and psychosocial functioning of caregivers of children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Disabil Rehabil. 2009;31(9):741–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus RS. Stress and emotion: a new synthesis. New York: Springer; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerner RM. Theories of human development: contemporary perspectives. In: Damon W, series editor, Lerner RM, volume editor. Handbook of child psychology: vol 2. Theoretical models of human development, 5th ed. New York: Wiley; 1998. p. 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liptak GS, Kennedy J, Dosa NP. Social participation in a nationally representative sample of older youth and young adults with autism. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2011;32(4):277–83. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e31820b49fc.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Magaña S, Smith MJ. Health outcomes of midlife and older Latina and Black American mothers of children with developmental disabilities. Ment Retard. 2006;44:224–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masten AS. Ordinary magic: resilience processes in development. Am Psychol. 2001;56:227–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McEwen BS. Stress, adaptation, and disease: allostasis and allostatic load. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998;840:33–44. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09546.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller GE, Cohen S, Ritchey AK. Chronic psychological stress and the regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines: a glucocorticoid-resistance model. Health Psychol. 2002;21:531–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller GE, Chen E, Zhou ES. If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychol Bull. 2007;133:25–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orsmond GI, Kuo H-Y. The daily lives of adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder: discretionary time use and activity partners. Autism. 2011;155:579–99. doi:10.1177/1362361310386503.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orsmond GI, Seltzer MM. Adolescent siblings of individuals with an autism spectrum disorder: testing a diathesis-stress model of sibling well-being. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009;39(7):1053–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pettit GS, Arsiwalla DD. Commentary on special section on “Bidirectional parent–child relationships” The continuing evolution of dynamic, transactional models of parenting and youth behavior problems. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2008;36:711–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pottie CG, Ingram KM. Daily stress, coping, and well-being in parents of children with autism: a multilevel modeling approach. J Fam Psychol. 2008;22(6):855–64. doi:10.1037/a0013604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pottie CG, Cohen J, Ingram KM. Parenting a child with autism: contextual factors associated with enhanced daily parental mood. J Pediatr Psychol. 2009;34(4):419–29. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn094.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryff CD, Singer BH, Seltzer MM. Pathways through challenge: implications for well-being and health. In: Pulkkinen L, Caspi A, editors. Paths to successful development: personality in the life course. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2002. p. 302–28.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Schieve LA, Blumberg SJ, Rice C, et al. The relationship between autism and parenting stress. Pediatrics. 2007;119S:S114–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer MM, Greenberg JS, Floyd FJ, et al. Accommodative coping and well-being of midlife parents of children with mental health problems or developmental disabilities. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2004;74:187–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer MM, Almeida DM, Greenberg JS, et al. Psychosocial and biological markers of daily lives of midlife parents of children with disabilities. J Health Soc Behav. 2009;50:1–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer MM, Greenberg JS, Hong J, et al. Maternal cortisol levels and behavior problems in adolescents and adults with ASD. J Autism Dev Disord. 2010;40(4):457–69. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0887-0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer MM, Floyd FJ, Song J, et al. Midlife and aging parents of adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: impacts of lifelong parenting. Am J Intellect Dev Disabil. 2011;116:479–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer MM, Barker ET, Greenberg JS, et al. Differential sensitivity to life stress in FMR1 premutation carrier mothers of children with Fragile X Syndrome. Health Psychology. 2012;31(5):612–622.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck PT, Seltzer MM, Greenberg JS, et al. Change in autism symptoms and maladaptive behaviors in adolescents and adults with an autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2007;13:129–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck PT, Wagner M, Narendorf S, et al. Post–high school service use among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2011;165(2):141–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer GHS. Meta-analysis of comparative studies of depression in mothers of children with and without developmental disabilities. Am J Ment Retard. 2006;111:155–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singer GS, Ethridge BL, Aldana SI. Primary and secondary effects of parenting and stress management interventions for parents of children with developmental disabilities: a meta-analysis. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2007;13(4):357–69. doi:10.1002/mrdd.20175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith L, Seltzer MM, Tager-Flusberg H, et al. A comparative analysis of well-being and coping among mothers of toddlers and mothers of adolescents with ASD. J Autism Dev Disord. 2008;37:876–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith LE, Hong J, Seltzer MM, et al. Daily experiences among mothers of adolescents and adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2010;40:167–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith LE, Seltzer MM, Greenberg JS. Daily health symptoms of mothers of adolescents and adults with fragile X syndrome and mothers of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord. 2011;40:167–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith LE, Greenberg JS, Seltzer MM. Social support and well-being at mid-life among mothers of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism DevDisord. 2012a;42(9):1818–1826.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith LE, Maenner M, Seltzer MM. Developmental trajectories in adolescents and adults with autism: the case of daily living skills. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012b;51(6):622–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor JL, Seltzer MM. Employment and post-secondary educational activities for young adults with autism spectrum disorders during the transition to adulthood. J Autism Dev Disord. 2010;41(5):566–74. PubMed: 20640591; PMC #3033449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomanik S, Harris GE, Hawkins J. The relationship between behaviors exhibited by children with autism and maternal stress. J Intellect Dev Disabil. 2004;29:16–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitaliano PP, Zhang J, Scanlan JM. Is caregiving hazardous to one’s physical health? A meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2003;129:946–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wigenfeld K, Heim C, Schmidt I, et al. HPA axis reactivity and lymphocyte glucocorticoid sensitivity in fibromyalgia Syndrome and chronic pelvic pain. Psychosom Med. 2008;70:65–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong JD, Seltzer MM, Greenberg JS, et al. Stressful life events and daily stressors affect awakening cortisol level in midlife mothers of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. Aging Ment Health. 2012. doi:10.1080/13607863.2012.688191.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wrosch C, Amir E, Miller GE. Goal adjustment capacities, coping, and subjective well-being: the sample case of caregiving for a family member with mental illness. J Personal Soc Psychol. 2011;100(5):934–46. doi:10.1037/a0022873.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This body of work was completed with support from the US National Institutes of Health (R01 AG08768; P30 HD03352, T32 HD07489) and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. We would like to acknowledge the contributions of Renee Makuch, Jinkuk Hong, and Jan Greenberg to this body of work. We are grateful to the families who participated in this research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrook Street West, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Erin T. Barker

  2. Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA

    Marsha R. Mailick

  3. Lifespan Family Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Avenue, Madison, WI, 53705, USA

    Leann E. Smith

Authors
  1. Erin T. Barker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Marsha R. Mailick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Leann E. Smith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Erin T. Barker .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Westminster, Faculty of Science & Technology, London, United Kingdom

    Vinood B. Patel

  2. Nutritional Sciences Division and Genomics Centre, King's College London, London, United Kingdom

    Victor R. Preedy

  3. Faculty of Society and Health, Buckinghamshire New University, Middlesex, United Kingdom

    Colin R. Martin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this entry

Cite this entry

Barker, E.T., Mailick, M.R., Smith, L.E. (2014). Chronic Parenting Stress in Mothers of Adolescents and Adults with Autism: Vulnerability and Resilience. In: Patel, V., Preedy, V., Martin, C. (eds) Comprehensive Guide to Autism. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_9

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4788-7_9

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-4787-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-4788-7

  • eBook Packages: Behavioral Science

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation